Remote Sensing Geology

438 Pages·2018·33.83 MB·English

Ravi P. Gupta
Remote Sensing
Geology
Third Edition
Remote Sensing Geology
Ravi P. Gupta
Remote Sensing Geology
Third Edition
123
RaviP. Gupta
Formerly Professor, EarthResources
Technology,Departmentof Earth
Sciences
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Roorkee
India
ISBN978-3-662-55874-4 ISBN978-3-662-55876-8 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-55876-8
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To,
M. S. R.
For inspiration and faith
Preface to the Third Edition
The main objective of producing the third edition of “Remote Sensing Geology” is to
incorporate in the book recent advances in this field. The book has been thoroughly revised
and enlarged. Topics such as satellite orbits, atmospheric correction, digital elevation model,
topographic correction, temperature/emissivity separation, object-based image analysis,
ASTER ratio indices for mineralogic identification and GIS-based prospectivity modelling
have been introduced and/or discussed at greater length. Besides, additional information has
beenincorporatedinnearlyallthechaptersincludingthelatestremotesensingsystems,asalso
on the remote sensing based geologic applications. Critical suggestions from colleagues and
esteemed reviewers of the earlier editions have been taken into consideration to the extent
possible.
Iamgreatlyindebtedtoanumberofpersonsfortheirsuggestions,inputsandcontributions
in this edition. My particular thanks are due to the following (in alphabetic order) for kindly
sparing their valuable time, going through parts of manuscript of their interest and extending
most valuable suggestions and comments:
A.K. Awasthi, Graphic Era University, Dehradun; Robert Corrie, The Queen’s College,
University of Oxford, Oxford; E. Elango, National Remote Sensing Centre, Hyderabad;
Rűdiger Gens, Alaska Satellite Facility, Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska,
Fairbanks; Sudhir K. Govil, Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Dehradun; Umesh K.
Haritashya Department of Geology, University of Dayton, Dayton; Douglas King, Dept. of
Geography and Environmental Studies, Carleton University, Ottawa; Yoshiki Ninomiya,
Research Institute of Geology and Geoinformation, Geological Survey of Japan, Tsukuba;
Amin B. Pour, Korea Polar Research Institute, Incheon; Anupma Prakash, Geophysical
Institute, University of Alaska, Fairbanks; Ratan K. Samaddar, State Water Investigation
Directorate, Kolkata; Ashis K. Saha, Dept. of Geography, Delhi University, Delhi; Varinder
Saini, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Ropar; Amit K. Sen, Dept.
of Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee; Reet K. Tiwari, Dept. of Civil
Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Ropar; and Yasushi Yamaguchi, Graduate
School of Environmental Studies, Nagoya University, Nagoya.
Thanks are particularly due to Sarvesh Kumar Sharma for soft copy preparation of the
manuscript and Narendra Kumar Varshney for the drawing work. Finally, I remain most
indebtedtomywifeRenuforherpositivesupportandencouragementthroughoutandbearing
with me during the period of my preoccupation with the book.
Lucknow Ravi P. Gupta
July 2017
vii
Preface to the Second Edition
The first edition of this book appeared in 1991, and since then there have been many
developments in the field of remote sensing, both in the direction of technology of data
acquisitionandindataprocessingandapplications.Thishasnecessitatedaneweditionofthe
book.
The revised edition includes new and updated material on a number of topics SAR inter-
ferometry, hyperspectral sensing, digital imaging cameras, GPS principle, new optical and
microwavesatellitesensors,andsomeoftheemergingtechniquesindigitalimageprocessing
and GIS. Besides, a host of new geological applications of remote sensing are also included.
The book has been thoroughly revised; nevertheless, it retains the original long axis and
style, i.e. discusses the basic remote sensing principles, systems of data acquisition and data
processing, and presents the wide ranging geological applications.
The following individuals reviewed parts of the manuscript, suggested improvements and
furnished missing links: R.P. Agarwal, M.K. Arora, R. Gens, U.K. Haritashya, K. Hiller,
H. Kaufmann, D. King, J. Mathew, F. vander Meer, R.R. Navalgund, S. Nayak, A. Prakash,
S.-K. Rath, A.K. Saha, A.K. Sen and A.N. Singh. I am greatly obliged to them for their
valuable inputs and suggestions in arriving at the final presentation.
IdeeplyappreciatetheinfinitepatienceandenduranceofSarveshKumarSharmaintyping
and computer-finishing the manuscript.
Finally,IamindebtedtomywifeRenu,forherencouragementandsupport,particularlyin
times when no end appeared in sight.
Roorkee Ravi P. Gupta
November 2002
ix
Preface to the First Edition
There has been phenomenal growth in the field of remote sensing over the last two to three
decades.Ithasbeenappliedinthefieldsofgeology,mineralexploration,forestry,agriculture,
hydrology, soils land use, etc.—that is, in all pursuits of sciences dealing with the features,
processes, and phenomena operating at the Earth’s surface. The status of geological remote
sensing has rapidly advanced and the scientific literature is scattered. The aim of the present
book is to systematically discuss the specific requirements of geological remote sensing, to
summarizethetechniquesofremotesensingdatacollectionandinterpretation,andtointegrate
the technique into geo-exploration.
The main conceptual features of the book are:
– To combine various aspects of geological remote sensing, ranging from the laboratory
spectra of minerals and rocks to aerial and space-borne remote sensing;
– To integrate photogeology into remote sensing;
– To promote remote sensing as a tool in integrated geo-exploration; and
– Toelucidatethewide-spectrumgeo-scientificapplicationsofremotesensing,rangingfrom
meso- to global scale.
The book has been written to satisfy the needs of mainly graduate students and active
research workers interested in applied Earth sciences. It is primarily concept oriented rather
than system or module oriented.
The organization of the book is detailed in Chap. 1 (Table 1.1). The book has three chief
segments: (1) techniques, sensors and interpretation of data in the optical region; (2) tech-
niques, sensors and interpretation of data in the microwave region; and (3) data processing,
integration and applications.
TheideaforthebookgerminatedasIpreparedacourseinremotesensingattheUniversity
ofRoorkeeforgraduatestudents,duringwhichextensivelecture notes weremade. The book
isanoutcomeofmyteachingandresearchattheUniversityofRoorkee,andpartlyalsoatthe
University of Munich.
Awide-spectrumbookinafieldlikeremotesensing,whereadvancementsaretakingplace
at such a fast pace, can hardly be exhaustive and up-to-date. Although every effort has been
made to incorporate recent developments, the priority has been on concepts rather than on
compilation of data alone (SPOT data examples could not be included because of copyright
limitations).
Sincere thanks are due to many individuals and organizations who have contributed in
variouswaystothebook.Particularly,IamgratefultoDr.RupertHaydn,ManagingDirector,
Gesellschaft fuer Angewandte Fernerkundung mbH, Munich, Germany, and formerly at the
UniversityofMunich,forsupplyingnumerousillustrations.Hekindlyprovidedmanyimages
forthebookandofferedblanketpermissiontoselectillustrationsandexamplesfromhiswide
andpreciouscollection.Dr.Haydnalsospentvaluabletimereviewingpartsofthetext,offered
fruitful criticism and is responsible for many improvements.
xi
xii PrefacetotheFirstEdition
Dr. Konrad Hiller, DLR, Germany and formerly at the University of Munich, provided
whatwasneededmost—inspirationandwarmfriendlysupport.Manystimulatingdiscussions
with him promoted my understanding of the subject matter and led to numerous reforms.
Without Konard’s encouragement, this book may not have seen the light of the day.
I am grateful to a number of people, particularly the following, for going through parts
of the manuscript of their interest, suggesting amendments and furnishing several missing
links: K. Arnason, R. Chander, R.P.S. Chhonkar, G.F. Jaskolla, H. Kaufmann, F. Lehmann,
G. Philip, A.K. Saraf, K.P. Sharma, V.N. Singh, B.B.S. Singhal, R. Sinha, D.C. Srivastava,
U. Terhalle, R.S. Tiwari, L.C. Venkatadhri and P. Volk.
Thanks are also due to Prof. Dr. J. Bodechtel, Institut fuer Allgemeine und Angewandie
Geologie (Institute for General and Applied Geology), University of Munich, for his advice,
suggestions and free access to the facilities at Munich. The Alexander von Humboldt Foun-
dation, Bonn, and the Gesellschaft fuer Angewandte Fernerkundung mbH, Munich
(Dr. R. Haydn) kindly provided financial support for my visits and stay in Germany, during
which parts of the book were written.
A book on remote sensing has to present many pictures and illustrations. A large number
ofthesewereborrowedfromcolleagues,organizations,instrumentmanufacturers,commercial
firms and publications. These are acknowledged in the captions.
Fortheexcellentproductionofthebook,thecreditgoestoDr.W.Engel,Ms.I.Scherich,
Ms. G. Hess, Ms. Jean von dem Bussche and Ms. Theodora Krammer of Springer-Verlag,
Heidelberg.
Although a number of people have directly and indirectly contributed to the book, I am
alone responsible for the statements made herein. It is possible that some oversimplifications
appear as erroneous statements. Suggestions from readers will be gratefully accepted.
Finally, I am indebted to my wife Renu for not only patiently enduring 4 years of my
preoccupation with the book but also extending positive support and encouragement.
If this book is able to generate interest in readers for this newly emerging technology, I
shall consider my efforts to be amply rewarded.
Roorkee R.P. Gupta
June 1991
Contents
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Definition and Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Development of Remote Sensing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Fundamental Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Advantages and Challenges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 A Typical Remote Sensing Programme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6 Field Data (Ground Truth) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6.1 Timing of Field Data Collection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6.2 Sampling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6.3 Types of Field Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6.4 GPS Survey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.7 Scope and Organization of This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2 Physical Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1 The Nature of EM Radiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Radiation Principles and Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.1 Radiation Terminology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.2 Blackbody Radiation Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.4 Energy Available for Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3 Atmospheric Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3.1 Atmospheric Scattering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3.2 Atmospheric Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3.3 Atmospheric Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.4 Energy Interaction Mechanisms on the Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.4.1 Reflection Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4.2 Transmission Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.4.3 Absorption Mechanism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4.4 Earth’s Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3 Spectra of Minerals and Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2 Basic Arrangements for Laboratory Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.3 Energy States and Transitions—Basic Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.3.1 Electronic Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.3.2 Vibrational Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.4 Spectral Features of Mineralogical Constituents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.4.1 Visible and Near-Infrared (VNIR) Region (0.4–1.0 µm) . . . . . 26
3.4.2 Shortwave-Infrared (SWIR) Region (1–3 µm) . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.4.3 Thermal-Infrared (TIR) Region (Approx. 3–25 µm) . . . . . . . . 28
xiii