Table Of ContentWillem Dirk van Driel
Maryam Yazdan Mehr Editors
Reliability of Organic
Compounds in
Microelectronics and
Optoelectronics
From Physics-of-Failure to Physics-of-
Degradation
Reliability of Organic Compounds
in Microelectronics and Optoelectronics
Willem Dirk van Driel • Maryam Yazdan Mehr
Editors
Reliability of Organic
Compounds in
Microelectronics and
Optoelectronics
From Physics-of-Failure
to Physics-of-Degradation
Editors
Willem Dirk van Driel Maryam Yazdan Mehr
Delft University of Technology Delft University of Technology
Delft, The Netherlands Delft, The Netherlands
ISBN 978-3-030-81575-2 ISBN 978-3-030-81576-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-81576-9
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface
Further developments in microelectronics and optoelectronics industries necessitate
materials that can withstand harsh and demanding working conditions. Reliability
and lifetime assessment of organic compounds in microelectronic and/or optoelec-
tronics devices are two key critical issues when it comes to the development of new
products. Reliability is defined as the probability of failure in a system over a given
lifetime, with defined operating conditions. When it comes to reliability, two factors
come into play: stable performance and predictability of failures within the so-
called “service lifetime”. Developing accurate reliability models for microelec-
tronic and/or optoelectronic devices requires an in-depth understanding of failure
and degradation mechanisms in organic compounds. Here, organic materials relate
to moulding compounds, die-attach, underfill, coatings, silicones, polycarbonate
and many more. Failures in sensitive microelectronic and optoelectronic devices
could have severe consequences on the functioning and profitability of many plants
and infrastructures. Understanding the root-cause of failures in electronic devices
and how materials degradation can contribute to such failures are therefore extremely
important in developing more reliable organic materials and systems. Such knowl-
edge can also be directly used in optimizing service conditions (voltage, tempera-
ture, environmental parameters and mechanical stresses). Having a clear picture of
a failure scenario is very useful in resolving the complexity of the inter-relations
between material properties and service conditions, which in case of an improper
functioning result in failure. This book aims to provide a comprehensive reference
into the critical subject of failure and degradation in organic materials, used in opto-
electronics and microelectronics systems and devices. Key unique features of this
book are:
• Documenting and introducing failure mechanisms of organic materials, used in
microelectronics and optoelectronics devices
• Inter-relating ageing of organic materials to product failure and how to use avail-
able simulation techniques to optimize the design and performance of a device
v
vi Preface
• Investigating the integration of several stresses (thermal, moisture, light radia-
tion, mechanical damage and more) into the performance of a large-scale system
in several industrial domains (lighting, automotive, transport and more)
• Introducing state-of-the-art multi-scale/multi-physics simulation and experi-
mental techniques to study failures of organic compounds in micro/optoelec-
tronic devices
This book contains chapters related to (i) organic materials (silicones and poly-
carbonate), (ii) degradation mechanisms in microelectronics materials like mould-
ing compounds, (iii) degradation mechanisms in optoelectronics components like
OLED and LEDs and (iv) state-of-the art modelling and lifetime assessment
techniques.
Parts of the contents in this book are first-hand results from industrial research
and development projects. Reading this book, students in different engineering dis-
ciplines get an insight and develop an in-depth understanding of different failure
and/or degradation mechanisms in organic materials. Also, this book will certainly
be useful when it comes to training methodologies of assessing failures, degrada-
tions and reliability of different engineering materials for students. Further, stu-
dents, engineers and technicians in different industrial sectors will certainly find this
book interesting and informative.
We would like to thank all the authors for their valuable contributions to the
book. The undersigned would also like to make acknowledgements to many of their
colleagues in Signify and Delft University of Technology who have contributed to
this book in one way or another.
Personal Acknowledgements
Willem van Driel is grateful to his wife Ruth Doomernik, their two sons, Juul and
Mats, and their daughter, Lize, for their support during the writing and editing of
this book. Besides that, the idea of the book was given during the Corona Davide
Challenge (100 bowls of Italian ice cream during the 2020 lockdown), fruitfully
accomplished with Silas and Joachim, and many thanks go to their parents Roger
Gerritzen and Tineke van den Heuvel. Really amazing ice creams: www.gelateria-
davide.nl.
Maryam Yazdan Mehr is grateful to her husband Abbas and their daughter Adrina
for their support during the writing and editing of this book.
Xuejun Fan is grateful to his wife, son and parents for their unselfish support and
love. G.Q. Zhang is grateful to his wife and their two children.
Delft, The Netherlands W. D. van Driel
Maryam Yazdan Mehr
Beaumont, TX, USA Xuejun Fan
Delft, The Netherlands G. Q. Zhang
May 2021
Contents
1 Degradation Mechanisms of Silicones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
François de Buyl and Shin Yoshida
2 Degradation Mechanisms of Aromatic Polycarbonate . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
T. M. Eggenhuisen and T. L. Hoeks
3 EMC Oxidation Under High-Temperature Aging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
A. Inamdar, P. Gromala, A. Prisacaru, A. Kabakchiev, Y. Yang,
and B. Han
4 Peridynamic Modeling of Thermo- oxidative Degradation
in Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
P. Roy, D. Behera, E. Madenci, and S. Oterkus
5 Molecular Modeling for Reliability Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Nancy E. Iwamoto
6 Health Monitoring, Machine Learning, and Digital Twin
for LED Degradation Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Mesfin Seid Ibrahim, Zhou Jing, and Jiajie Fan
7 Reliability and Failures in Solid State Lighting Systems . . . . . . . . . . 211
W. D. van Driel, B. J. C. Jacobs, G. Onushkin, P. Watte, X. Zhao,
and J. Lynn Davis
8 Degradation and Failures of Polymers Used
in Light-Emitting Diodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
M. Yazdan Mehr, W. D. van Driel, and G. Q. Zhang
9 Degradation and Reliability of Organic Materials
in Organic Light-Emitting Diodes (OLEDs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Kelley Rountree, J. Lynn Davis, Karmann C. Riter, Jean Kim,
Michelle McCombs, and Roger Pope
vii
viii Contents
10 Artificial Intelligence and LED Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
J. Wei
11 Degradation Analysis for Reliability of Optoelectronics . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Cheng Qian, Zeyu Wu, Wei Chen, Jiajie Fan, Xi Yang, Yi Ren,
Bo Sun, and Zili Wang
12 Reliability and Failure of Microelectronic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
A. Mavinkurve, R. T. H. Rongen, and M. van Soestbergen
13 Degradation and Remaining Useful Life Prediction
of Automotive Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
P. Gromala, A. Inamdar, A. Prisacaru, M. Dressler,
and A. Kabakchiev
14 Reliability and Degradation of Power Electronic Materials . . . . . . . . 449
R. Ross and G. Koopmans
15 Degradation of Cure-Induced Stress Levels in Micro-electronics . . . 479
Daoguo Yang and L. J. Ernst
16 Manufacturing for Reliability of Panel- Level Fan-out Packages . . . . 517
T. Braun and O. Hölck
17 Outlook: From Physics of Failure to Physics of Degradation . . . . . . . 535
W. D. van Driel, M. Yazdan Mehr, X. J. Fan, and G. Q. Zhang
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
Chapter 1
Degradation Mechanisms of Silicones
François de Buyl and Shin Yoshida
1 Introduction to Silicones
1.1 Polydimethylsiloxane
The best known of the commercially available silicones are polydimethylsiloxanes
(PDMS), so these will be our main concern. They are available as linear fluids,
cyclics, gels, and resins, depending on the degree of cross-linking, or as elastomers,
when fillers are incorporated in cross-linked polymers.
Silicone polymers or resins display the unusual combination of an inorganic
chain similar to silicates or glass, which is often associated with high surface energy,
and side methyl groups that are, conversely, organic by nature, and thus exhibit low
surface energy [1]. The Si–O bonds of silicone are strongly polarized and, without
protection, should lead to strong intermolecular interactions. Methyl groups weakly
interact with each other, so they effectively shield the main molecular chain. This is
further facilitated by the absence of side groups at the oxygen atom, which results
in the high flexibility of the siloxane backbone.
The bond lengths and angles are also responsible for the properties of silicones
(Fig. 1.1). The typical C–C and C–O bond lengths are 1.54 and 1.41 Å, respectively,
while the Si–O bond length is much longer with 1.65 Å. The bond angles between
C–C and C–O bonds are also different than the Si–O bond angles. A typical C–C–C
or C–O–C bond has an angle near 110° (tetrahedral spatial configuration). The
Si–O–Si bond angle is 142° and the O–Si–O bond angle is 109° [2].
F. de Buyl (*)
Dow Silicones Belgium srl, Seneffe, Belgium
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Yoshida
Dow Toray Co. Ltd., Tokyo, Japan
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 1
W. D. van Driel, M. Yazdan Mehr (eds.), Reliability of Organic Compounds in
Microelectronics and Optoelectronics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-81576-9_1
2 F. de Buyl and S. Yoshida
Fig. 1.1 Bond angles and
lengths of carbon and
silicon- based polymers
While these differences between carbon-based polymers and silicon-based poly-
mers can seem small, the longer bond lengths and the widened bond angles relieve
significant barriers to bond rotation. This open molecular structure also explains the
lower barrier to rotation around the Si–O bond, of about 2.5 kJ/mol (0.5 kcal/mol),
approximately equal to kT at room temperature, compared with barriers of about
17 kJ/mol in alkanes (4 kcal/mol) [3, 4]. Thus, the polydimethylsiloxane chain can
adopt many conformations. In more practical terms, this means silicone’s
polydimethylsiloxane backbone can easily adopt many shapes for easier processing
and molding.
Low intermolecular interactions and high free volume of polydimethylsiloxane
compared to hydrocarbons result in other physical characteristics, such as a low
glass transition temperature (Tg) of 146°K (−127 °C), high flexibility, good vibra-
tion absorption characteristics as well as high impact resistance [1]. Despite the
high solubility and high diffusion coefficient of gases such as oxygen, nitrogen, or
water vapor, silicone resists wetting due to its very low surface tension [1]. Therefore,
with their low moisture uptake and ability to withstand harsh environmental condi-
tions, conventional silicones are already frequently used by the electronics industry
to protect fragile components against damage and corrosion.
Compared to many organic materials, the chemical backbone of silicones makes
them particularly well-suited to manage the increasingly high temperatures of
today’s and tomorrow’s LED lighting systems. The combination of siloxane and
methyl has thermal and oxidative stability benefits arising from the polarized Si–O
bond that is highly ionic and exhibits a large bond energy, 452 kJ/mole (108 kcal/
mol) due to the electro-negativity difference, ∆EI of 1.7, between silicone (1.8) and
carbon (2.5). By comparison, the Si–C bond has a bond energy of ca. 318 kJ/mole
(76 kcal/mol) – which is slightly lower than a C–C bond with ca. 346 kJ/mol
(83 kcal/mol) and C–O bond with ca. 358 kJ/mol (86 kcal/mol) – while the Si-Si
bond is weak, 193 kJ/mole (46 kcal/mole) (Fig. 1.2).
