Table Of ContentSpringer Series in Optical Sciences 217
Robert W. Boyd
Svetlana G. Lukishova
Victor N. Zadkov Editors
Quantum Photonics:
Pioneering Advances
and Emerging
Applications
Springer Series in Optical Sciences
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Robert W. Boyd Svetlana G. Lukishova
(cid:129)
Victor N. Zadkov
Editors
Quantum Photonics:
Pioneering Advances
and Emerging Applications
123
Editors
RobertW. Boyd SvetlanaG.Lukishova
Department ofPhysics TheInstitute of Optics
University of Ottawa University of Rochester
Ottawa, ON,Canada Rochester, NY, USA
and Victor N.Zadkov
Institute of Spectroscopy of theRussian
Institute of Optics andDepartment Academy of Sciences
of Physics Troitsk, Moscow,Russia
University of Rochester
Rochester, NY, USA
ISSN 0342-4111 ISSN 1556-1534 (electronic)
SpringerSeries inOptical Sciences
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Preface
The word “quantum” became popular not only in physics, but in a much wider
world: today’s general public is intrigued by extremely powerful quantum com-
puters,quantumteleportation,andsecurequantumcommunicationinspace.Usage
of “quantum” in popular movies, TV shows, newspapers, and some consumer
goods made it saturate the air for almost everybody, although often with the
meanings different from those in physics.
The unique purpose of this book is to bring together the largely unreported
history of experiments with single “light quanta” (photons) and map it with its
modern manifestations as one of the key drivers to the vibrant scientific field of
quantum photonics. We seek to convey to the readers the state-of-the-art advances
of modern developments in quantum photonics and nonlinear optics from the
leading groups throughout the world. The book also familiarizes the scientists,
teachers,andstudentswiththeearliestexperimentsonsingle-photonandnonlinear
opticsfromatimewhenbothlasersandtoday’slightdetectorsdidnotyetexist,and
the photographic plate or the human eye served as single-photon detectors. As a
result, this book consists of two parts: (i) Modern Quantum, Nano- and Nonlinear
Photonics, and (ii) Historical Works: Single-Photon and Nonlinear Optical
Experiments in the Pre-Laser Era complimented with reprints and translation into
English of some pioneering experimental papers. The book contains contributions
of researchers from Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Hungary, Israel, Japan,
Russia, Singapore, UK, and USA.
In this Preface, we clarify terminology and give relevant brief historical infor-
mation. We also highlight the chapters of each of two parts of the book.
v
vi Preface
Terminology with Some Historical Highlights
Light Quanta (Photons)
In the third online edition of the Oxford English Dictionary (OED, December
2007), the first usage of the word “quantum” in English (borrowed from Latin) is
dated back to 1567 (“… the body of Christe in the Sacramente is quantum …”).
Initially, this word had meaning of something that has quantity or total amount of
quantity and was found chiefly in philosophy-related manuscripts or in law liter-
ature (with reference to amount of money).
According to the same edition of the OED, the usage of “quantum” in physics
wasrecordedin1870(Nature1,p.306)inasenseofquantity(“acertainquantum
of the electric fluid”). Lord Kelvin also used “quantum” in a similar sense in both
his 1902 and 1904 papers.
Themodernmeaningofthe“quantum”conceptinphysics(adiscretequantityof
electromagneticenergyproportionalinmagnitudetothefrequencyoftheradiation,
or any other physical discrete quantity (e.g., momentum or electric charge)) was
born in the early twentieth century, owing to two classic German papers by Max
Planck [1] and Albert Einstein [2]. We also would like to mention experiments of
Millikan on the photoeffect confirming Einstein’s prediction [3] and Compton on
inelasticX-rayscatteringbyelectrons[4]afterwhichtheconceptsofearlyquantum
theorywereacceptedbythescientificcommunity.Seealsothe1954Nobellecture
by Glauber1 on the history of light quanta [5].
Planck
Planck’s talk of December 14, 1900, anditspublication[1]waslaterrecognizedas
the turning point in the history of physics and currently is considered widely as the
birth of quantum mechanics. Deriving oscillators’ entropy in the spectrum of
blackbody radiation (distribution of a given energy among a set of oscillators pro-
ducing the heat radiation emitted by black bodies), to satisfy experimental data,
Planck introduced “energy elements” (Energieelemente, in German). He postulated
thatanenergyEoftheNresonatorsoffrequencym“tobecomposedofaverydefinite
numberoffiniteequalpartsandweusetheretotheconstantofnatureh=6.55x10−27
erg s”. He continued further: “This constant multiplied by the common frequency m
of the resonators gives the energy element (cid:1) in erg, and dividing E by (cid:1) we get the
numberPofenergyelementstobedistributedovertheNresonators”[1];seealso[6].
Einstein
Einsteinwasthefirsttorecognizein1905thatthediscontinuityofPlanck’stheory
of blackbody radiation is not only a formal necessity for fitting the equation with
the experimental data, but leads to new physics. Einstein started first the usage
1Roy Jay Glauber, one of the founding fathers of quantum optics and its “icon” through his
quantumtheoryofopticalcoherence,widelycitedinthisbook(Chaps.1,3,4and19)passedaway
whileitwenttoprint.GlauberwillstayinourmemoryasDr.QuantumOptics(coinedby
J. Eberly).
Preface vii
of the word “quanta” (plural) in the meaning of modern physics [2]: “Indeed, it
seems to me that the observations regarding “blackbody radiation”, photolumi-
nescence, production of cathode rays by ultraviolet light, and other groups of
phenomenaassociatedwiththeproductionorconversionoflightcanbeunderstood
betterifoneassumesthattheenergyoflightisdiscontinuouslydistributedinspace.
Accordingtotheassumptiontobecontemplatedhere,whenalightrayisspreading
fromapoint,theenergyisnotdistributedcontinuouslyoverever-increasingspaces,
butconsistsofafinitenumberofenergyquanta(Energiequanta,inGerman)thatare
localized in points in space, move without dividing, and can be absorbed or gen-
erated only as a whole.” In this paper [2], in the photoelectric effect section, he
proposed a linear relationship between the maximum energy of electrons ejected
from a surface and the frequency of the incident light. The slope of the line which
did not depend on the substance was Planck’s constant. Verification of Einstein’s
law for the energies of the photoelectrons came only in 1914–1916 by Millikan
experiments, although even after them some doubts about the quantized nature of
lightpersistedinscientificcommunity,andonlyafterCompton’sdiscoveryin1922
of X-ray quanta scattering by electrons obeying the same rules as the particle
scattering, Einstein’s theory of light quanta was accepted.
Photon
Thename“photon”isderivedfromGreek(uώso=photo=light)andthe“-on”at
the end of the word was introduced in the twentieth century [7]. “Photon” as an
alternative name for Einstein’s quantum of light became preferable by the
mid-1930s[7].Althoughitwasusedbyseveralindependentresearchersearlier(see
[7]), this word became synonymous with quantum of light only after the paper of
Gilbert Newton Lewis of 1926 [8] inspite of its different meaning from Einstein’s
light quantum: “… I therefore take the liberty of proposing for this hypothetical
new atom, which is not light but plays an essential part in every process of radi-
ation, the name photon” [8]. In our book, we have a chapter about Lewis’ contri-
bution to nonlinear optics with a short biography of this outstanding scientist.
According to [7], Arthur Holly Compton promoted the new term “photon.” In his
1927NobellectureComptonwrote:“HerewedonotthinkoftheX-raysaswaves
butaslightcorpuscles,quanta,or,aswemaycallthem,photons.”Healsouseditin
popular literature.
Leonard Thompson Troland (famous American physicist, engineer and psy-
chologist,presidentoftheOpticalSocietyofAmerica(1922–1923))firstcoinedthe
word in 1916 (see [7] for more details and references therein), but he used it as a
unit for the illumination of the retina. Five years later, it was independently
introduced by the Irish physicist John Joly, professor of geology and mineralogy
who was also interested in vision. What Joly called a “photon” was the minimum
stimulusrequiredtoproduceasignalinafiberoftheopticnerve.Then,in1925,a
French biochemist, biophysicist, and physiologist, René Wurmser (who was
nominatedtwiceforaNobelPrizeinChemistry),inhispaperaboutphotochemical
reactions relating to the role of chlorophyll in photosynthesis, wrote that “the
activation of a molecule, in the sense of J. Perrin, demands the absorption of an
viii Preface
integral but variable number of photons.” Like Wurmser, but in a very different
context, his compatriot, physicist Frithiof (Fred) Wolfers in his hypothesis also
relatedtoPerrin’sideaofmolecularresonance(“inductionmoléculaire,”inFrench)
suggested: “I shall use the name photons for the projectiles that supposedly
transportradiantenergyandpossessthecharacterofaperiodicfrequencym(atoms
of light). I then suggest that the photons may be repelled by the atoms of matter
whentheypassthemclosely…Onemayimaginethattherepulsionisduetoakind
of resonance between the photons and the resonators …” [7].
Photonics
Inthecurrentprofessionalliterature,“photonics”isusedalmostsynonymouslywith
theterm“optics,”referringequallytobothscienceandapplications[9].Thephrase
“optics and photonics” is used in [9] to capture light’s dual nature as:
(cid:129) a propagating wave, like a radio wave, but with a much higher frequency;
(cid:129) acollectionofphotons,withpotentialasatransformativefieldsimilarinimpact
to electronics.
According to the OED, the term “photonics” was mentioned already in 1952 in
theJournaloftheBritishInterplanetarySociety:“Fromthefundamentaldomainsof
photonics, electronics, … and physical chemistry, our interest passes … to aero-
dynamics and the physics of solid bodies.” Independently, the term “photonics”
(фoтoникa in Russian) was introduced in 1967 in the book in Russian [10]
“Photonics of Molecules of Dyes and Related Compounds” of the Soviet aca-
demician Alexander N. Terenin. A European Commission CORDIS states that the
term “photonics” was coined in 1967 by Pierre Aigrain [11], a prominent French
physicist, a foreign member of the National Academy of Sciences (USA, since
1974): “Photonicsisthescienceoftheharnessingoflight.Photonics encompasses
the generation of light, the detection of light, the management of light through
guidance, manipulation,andamplification, and most importantly, its utilizationfor
thebenefitofmankind.”In1975,thebook“Photonics”[12](Proceedingsof1973–
1974 years’ talks and a 1974 year conference) edited by M. Balkanski and
P. Lallemand was published in Paris in which this term was used by analogy with
electronics, describing the application of the photon to the transmission of infor-
mation, and included such topics as photon beam production, waveguiding,
deflection, modulation, amplification, image processing, storage, and detection
[13]. This book contains an explanatory note of Balkanski “Photonics: perspective
in 1974” and Aigrain’s chapter in French “La photonique, technique de demain.”
ThetermbegantobeseeninprintinEnglisharound1981inpressreleases,annual
reports of Bell Laboratories, and internal publications of Hughes Aircraft
Corporation and in the more general press [9].
In the last decades, with development of integrated, nano-, biophotonics,
free-space optical communication, and with the impact increasing of photonics on
thenationaleconomies,theconceptof“photonics”acquiredabroadersense[9,14].
It comprises also light–matter interaction, including nonlinear optical interaction
Preface ix
andextremephotonics.Thetwenty-firstcenturywilldependasmuchonphotonics
as the twentieth century depended on electronics (see the website of the
International Year of Light (2015) [15]). In the book, we are using “photonics” in
this broader sense as, for instance, in Ralf Menzel’s book, page 2 [16].
Part I. Modern Quantum, Nano- and Nonlinear Photonics
ThispartofthebookconsistsoftenchaptersandopenswithChap.1byAspectand
Grangier on the first single-photon sources and single-photon interference experi-
ments.Theauthorsemphasizethedifferencebetween“single-photonwavepackets”
and attenuated classical light pulses or light beams and describe the single-photon
sourcedevelopedbytheminthemid-1980s(heraldedsingle-photonwavepackets,
based on pairs of photons emitted in a radiative cascade). They also define the
quantitative criterion of “anticorrelation” they use in distinguishing single-photon
wave packets from attenuated pulses. In addition, the first single-photon interfer-
enceexperimentperformedbytheauthorswiththeirheraldedsourceillustratesthe
notionofwave–particleduality.Briefoverviewsarealsoprovidedforboththefirst
interference experiments in feeble light at 102–107 photons/s, and further devel-
opmentsinsourcesofsinglephotons,heralded oron-demand,aswellasinwave–
particle duality experiments, in particular Wheeler’s delayed-choice experiment.
Mirhosseini, Lundeen, and Boyd (Chap. 2) provide an overview of recent pro-
gressinthetomographyofstructuredlightwithanemphasisonthemethodknown
asdirectmeasurementofthequantumwavefunction.Directmeasurementprovides
a scalable and easy-to-implement approach for characterizing the transverse
structure of single photons. This protocol is particularly attractive in light of the
emerging role of high-dimensional optical states as a resource for encoding quan-
tum information. This chapter presents a summary of various implementations of
this technique that aim to characterize the spatial degree offreedom of the optical
field.
Strekalov and Leuchs (Chap. 3) overview nonlinear interactions and
non-classical light. This chapter includes the definition of non-classical light and
basic examples and reviews some of the most prominent applications of
non-classical light as well as the most common sources of non-classical light
including physical systems of various sizes and complexity (ranging from single
atoms tooptical crystalsandtosemiconductorlasers).The authorsalsooutlinethe
trends in the field and the new cross-disciplinary approaches and techniques of
generating non-classical light.
LukishovaandBissell(Chap.4)reviewroom-temperaturesingle-photonsources
with photons exhibiting antibunching, including the authors’ results on
single-photonsourceswithdefinitecircularandlinearpolarizations.Single,“giant”,
colloidal, semiconductor nanocrystal quantumdots and dot-in-rods,diamondcolor
centers (both bulk and nanodiamonds), and trivalent rare-earth ions offer the best
photostability(longestoperatingtime)inroom-temperatureexcitation.Thisreview
