political communication in the 1991 general election in india with special reference to andhra ...

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POLITICAL COMMUNICATION IN THE
1991 GENERAL ELECTION IN INDIA
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO
ANDHRA PRADESH
KAVITA KARAN
Submitted for the degree of Ph.D.
London School of Economics
199£7
UMI Number: U615177
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POLITICAL
AND
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
There are a lot of people who helped shape this study, but here
I can only name a few. To Prof.Tom Nossiter, I am deeply
indebted. His sustained encouragement and support led to the
completion of the thesis. His affection made our stay in London
memorable. Mr.Peter Dawson helped in the final shaping of the
thesis.
I would like to thank the interviewers who spared the time to
collect the information braving the heat of the Indian summer.
Thanks are due to the Indian politicians, journalists, political
commentators, intellectuals, civil servants and academicians who
spared the time to meet me during the elections.
I am grateful to officials of the Central Research Fund and the
International Research Development Centre for providing the
financial support for my field work in India and the Nehru
Centenary Fellowship for all my years of study at the LSE.
I would also like to thank Dr.Daniel Satyaraj and Penny Page for
computing the data. Among friends I would like to thank Vijay
Kumar, Prem, Gautam, Sanjay, Sunita, Sunil, Catherine, Smita,
Lydia, Deepa and Rosa. The word processing skills of Kristina
were valuable in the presentation of the thesis.
Finally, I would thank my family. My husband, Ravi Karan who
handled with patience all the hassles so that I could concentrate
on my work. My son, Rohan helped out in the data entry and Kunal
born a few months before the completion of this thesis for
behaving like a lovable child. Thanks are due to my brother Rohit
Raj Mathur, for sending all the information from India.
I dedicate the thesis to my parents, Dr. Shiv Raj Mathur and Maya
Devi Mathur.
ABSTRACT
In most competitive democracies, the allegedly US inspired
changing campaign practices of the 1980s and 1990s have been
subjected to intense scrutiny. India, as the largest democracy
has also seen the use of modern techniques of political marketing
alongside conventional forms of electioneering. These 'Western'
techniques were first adopted in 1984 by Congress-(Indira) under
Rajiv Gandhi. By 1991, these techniques were common place with
almost all the political parties hiring the services of
professional advertising agencies during elections. Campaigns
began to be adapted from western models, melding the 'American'
techniques with rallies, public meetings and door-to-door
campaigns. Audio and video cassettes have been adapted to the
Indian context, most notably the video-on-wheels.
This research on Political Communications in the . general
elections and its effectiveness is one of the first of its kind
on India, the literature having concentrated on voting behaviour
in relation to socio-economic characteristics. The importance of
communication during elections has been inadequately researched
because of the diversity of the country. Through a content
analysis of the coverage of election information in the media and
case studies of party campaigns, the study evaluates the campaign
practices in the mass media and conventional interpersonal forms.
It highlights the electronic and outdoor forms like posters, wall
writings, symbol displays and cutouts that were important during
the 1991 elections. The thesis then examines the impact of these
campaigns through a panel survey on a sample of 1155 electors
from the three constituencies of Hyderabad, Secunderabad and
Nagarkurnool in Andhra Pradesh. The voting patterns have been
evaluated in relation to access to and the impact of different
forms of political’ communications.
Research revealed that Indian political communication campaigns
were well organised and professional advertising agencies were
hired to promote the parties. Campaigns have been systematically
planned through the development of creative and media strategies.
Apart from the mass media channels, interpersonal forms continued
to be important to reach the diverse electorate. There was a high
level of exposure to newspapers, radio and television which were
sought as important sources for election related information.
Interpersonal forms were found to be persuasive. Education,
urbanization, gender, caste and religion are important factors
influencing the voters' perceptions and receptivity to electoral
communications.
But, while increased level of information does heighten the level
of political awareness, it does not determine the final outcome.
An important aspect was that families largely tended to vote as
single units with men generally deciding who to vote for. Women
showed relatively little interest in politics (though comprising
an important 45% of voters) and their under representation in the
study necessitated the need for weighting.
The assassination of former Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi in the
middle of the elections adds an important dimension to the
research, from those who voted in a normal election and those in
the 'sympathy wave'. This study, though conducted under unusual
circumstances does provide a much needed insight into the
political changes in the country and the increasing use of US
inspired media driven campaign practices of political marketing
combining comfortably with conventional practices of political
marketing in India. A final yet important aspect of this research
is the exploration of the problems of survey research in a
country of cultural plurality such as India.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION................................................1
CHAPTER I
THEORETICAL APPROACH, COMPARATIVE LITERATURE AND RESEARCH
DESIGN
SECTION I
THEORETICAL APPROACH........................................ 11
SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS....................................... 17
ANDHRA PRADESH THE AREA OF STUDY............................24
'PROFILES OF CAMPAIGNS ......................................33
SAMPLE FOR THE STUDY....................................... 36
CHAPTER II
INDIAN ELECTORAL SYSTEM, POLITICAL COMMUNICATION, MASS MEDIA
AND THE 1991 ELECTIONS
SECTION I
INDIAN ELECTORAL SYSTEM ................................... 39
THE POLITICAL PARTIES ..................................... 42
-POLITICAL COMMUNICATION AND INDIAN ELECTION STUDIES.......50
THE 1991 TENTH GENERAL ELECTIONS............................55
SECTION II
MASS MEDIA IN INDIA AND THE 1991 GENERAL ELECTIONS.........63
THE ROLE OF PRESS........................................... 68
THE PERIODICAL PRESS........................................ 74
THE BROADCAST MEDIA......................................... 75
THE USE OF RADIO............................................ 77
THE USE OF TELEVISION....................................... 79
CHAPTER III
CAST STUDIES OF THE SELECTED ELECTION CAMPAIGNS
SECTION I
STUDY OF THE CONGRESS -I ELECTION CAMPAIGN................. 84
SECTION II
CASE STUDY OF THE BJP ELECTION CAMPAIGN................... 102
SECTION III
CASE STUDY OF THE JANATA DAL/NATIONAL FRONT ELECTION
CAMPAIGN....................................................123
SECTION IV
STUDY OF THE TELUGU DESAM PARTY ELECTION CAMPAIGN.........136
SECTION V
STUDY OF THE MIM ELECTION CAMPAIGN ....................... 148
SECTION VI
VOTER EDUCATION CAMPAIGN BY THE GOVERNMENT 158
CHAPTER IV
SOCIO ECONOMIC PROFILE OF THE RESPONDENTS, ATTITUDES TO THE
POLITICAL PROCESS AND ACCESS TO MEDIA
INTRODUCTION................................................162
SECTION I
SOCIO ECONOMIC PROFILE OF RESPONDENTS..................... 163
SECTION II
POLITICAL INTEREST, GENERAL AWARENESS AND
ATTITUDES TO GOVERNMENT AND POLITICIANS................... 175
SECTION III
ACCESS AND FREQUENCY TO THE MEDIA ........................ 185
SOURCES OF INFORMATION SOUGHT DURING ELECTIONS............189
CHAPTER V
USES AND IMPACT OF MASS MEDIA DURING ELECTIONS
SECTION I
NEWSPAPERS..................................................191
SECTION II
THE PERIODICALS PRESS...................................... 210
SECTION III
ELECTION PROGRAMMES ON RADIO...............................215
SECTION IV
ELECTION PROGRAMMES ON TELEVISION..........................224
CHAPTER VI
USES AND IMPACT OF OTHER ELECTRONIC MEDIA DURING ELECTIONS
INTRODUCTION............................................... 242
SECTION I
VIDEO CASSETTES AS NARROW CASTING MEDIA................... 243
SECTION II
4 AUDIO CASSETTES AS NARROWCASTING MEDIA.................... 254
SECTION III
FILMS FOR POLITICAL COMMUNICATION..........................257
CHAPTER VII
USES AND IMPACT OF OUTDOOR FORMS OF POLITICAL COMMUNICATION
SECTION I
PRINTED LITERATURE......................................... 265
SECTION II
POSTERS ....................................................266
SECTION III
CAMPAIGN LITERATURE -HANDBILLS AND LEAFLETS 271
SECTION IV
WALL WRITINGS ............................................. 274
SECTION V
PARTY SYMBOLS...................................... 276
SECTION VI
CARDBOARD CUTOUTS.......................................... 281
CHAPTER VIII
INTERPERSONAL FORMS OF POLITICAL COMMUNICATION
INTRODUCTION................................................284
SECTION I
MASS INTERPERSONAL CHANNELS................................285
SECTION II
INTERNAL INTERPERSONAL CHANNELS............................302
SECTION III
PERSONAL FACTORS INFLUENCING VOTING BEHAVIOUR............. 317
CHAPTER IX
VOTING BEHAVIOUR AND THE IMPACT OF CAMPAIGNS
INTRODUCTION .............................................. 324
SECTION I
VOTING BEHAVIOUR IN THE 1989 AND 1991 ELECTIONS...........325
PARTIES VOTED FOR IN 1989 AND 1991 ELECTIONS ............. 331
TIMING OF THE DECISION TO VOTE.............................338
NON VOTING TRENDS IN THE ELECTIONS ........................339
SECTION II
THE IMPACT OF THE ELECTION CAMPAIGNS...................... 343
CHAPTER X
CONCLUSIONS................... 355
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A LETTER FROM THE ELECTION COMMISSION OF
INDIA 384
APPENDIX B SCHEME OF BROADCAST OVER AIR AND
DOORDARSHAN BY RECOGNISED POLITICAL
PARTIES DURING ELECTIONS TO LOK SABHA 385
APPENDIX C SCHEDULE OF PARTY ELECTION BROADCASTS 387
APPENDIX D ANALYSIS OF PRE POLL PROGRAMMES ON
TELEVISION 389
APPENDIX E MODEL CODE OF CONDUCT FOR GUIDANCE OF
POLITICAL PARTIES AND CANDIDATES 397
APPENDIX F CODE OF CONDUCT FOR ELECTION MEETINGS
AND PROCESSIONS 400
APPENDIX G LIST OF INTERVIEWS 402
APPENDIX H QUESTIONNAIRES 404
BIBLIOGRAPHY 418