Table Of ContentENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES
An Interdisciplinary Monograph Series
EDITORS
DOUGLAS H. K. LEE E. WENDELL HEWSON C. FRED GURNHAM
National Institute of Department of Meteorology Department of Environmental
Environmental Health Sciences and Oceanography Engineering, Illinois Institute of
Research Triangle Park The University of Michigan Technology, Chicago, Illinois
North Carolina Ann Arbor, Michigan
ARTHUR C. STERN, editor, AIR POLLUTION, Second Edition.
In three volumes, 1968
DOUGLAS H. K. LEE E. WENDELL HEWSON DANIEL OKUN
National Institute of Department of Meteorology University of North Carolina
Environmental Health Sciences and Oceanography Department of Environmental
Research Triangle Park The University of Michigan Sciences and Engineering
North Carolina Ann Arbor, Michigan Chapel Hill, North Carolina
L. FISHBEIN, W. G. FLAMM, and H. L. FALK, CHEMICAL MUTAGENS: Environ-
mental Effects on Biological Systems, 1970
DOUGLAS H. K. LEE and DAVID MINARD, editors, PHYSIOLOGY, ENVIRON-
MENT, and MAN, 1970
In preparation
R. E. MUNN, BIOMETEOROLOGICAL METHODS
KARL D. KRYTER, THE EFFECTS AND MEASUREMENT OF NOISE
PHYSIOLOGY, ENVIRONMENT,
AND MAN
Based on a Symposium Conducted by
The National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council
August, 1966
EDITED BY
DOUGLAS H. K. LEE and DAVID MINARD
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ENVIRONMENTAL GRADUATE SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH
HEALTH SCIENCES UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH
RESEARCH TRIANGLE PARK, NORTH CAROLINA PITTSBURGH, PENNSYLVANIA
NAS-NRC COMMITTEE ON ENVIRONMENTAL PHYSIOLOGY
ANNA M. BAETJER JAMES D. HARDY VAN R. POTTER
HARWOOD S. BELDING STEVEN M. HORVATH FREDERICK SARGENT
BERNARD B. BRODIE DAVID MINARD (CHAIRMAN) JAMES H. STERNER
LOUIS S. GOODMAN NORTON NELSON JAMES L. WHITTENBERGER
ACADEMIC PRESS New York and London 1970
COPYRIGHT © 1970, BY ACADEMIC PRESS, INC.
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
NO PART OF THIS BOOK MAY BE REPRODUCED IN ANY FORM,
BY PHOTOSTAT, MICROFILM, RETRIEVAL SYSTEM, OR ANY
OTHER MEANS, WITHOUT WRITTEN PERMISSION FROM
THE PUBLISHERS.
ACADEMIC PRESS, INC.
Ill Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10003
United Kingdom Edition published by
ACADEMIC PRESS, INC. (LONDON) LTD.
Berkeley Square House, London W1X 6BA
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NUMBER : 78-127690
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
As they go to press, the Editors
learn with great regret of the
death of Colonel Adam Rapahki,
Division of Medical Sciences,
NAS-NRC, who labored long and hard
to bung together the presentations
to the Symposium into a coherent
and instructive document,
This volume is offered as a memorial
to his interest and skill.
Foreword
"Man does not limit himself to seeing; he thinks and insists on learning the
meaning of the phenomena whose existence has been revealed to him by
observation. So he reasons, compares facts, puts questions to them, and by
the answers which he extracts, tests one by another."
CLAUDE BERNARD, 1865*
A century later, man's observations tell him with increasing insistence that all
is not well with his environment; and for these disturbing phenomena he de-
mands explanation—explanation of how they have come about, understanding
of their effect on living matter, and assessment of what they ultimately mean for
his cherished way of life.
The burgeoning resources of contemporary science have responded to this
demand, not so much by the creation of new disciplines, as by the orientation of
existing disciplines to questions of environmental moment. New names have been
coined, old names compounded, and boundaries modified, but these are no more
than superficial indicators of deeper changes. Academic science, devoted to the
establishment of basic truths free from the pressures of "practical" problems,
must and will continue to flourish in quiet corners; but the deployment of
knowledge and the establishment of techniques for its deployment in the service
of environmental management have been clearly recognized as additional and
urgent needs. Fortunately, the exponential growth of science and technology,
which has contributed—it must be admitted—to many of our environmental
woes, has also developed the knowledge, techniques, and the individuals which
can be used in their amelioration.
The term "environmental sciences" has been given to the body of knowledge
that is relevant to problems of environmental effects and their management. Its
boundaries are purely pragmatic. Any activity which subscribes to the tenets of
scientific procedure and can contribute to the understanding of environmental
problems qualifies, ipso facto, for inclusion.
It was with these thoughts that the Environmental Sciences Series of inter-
disciplinary monographs was established:
The realignment of the biological, physical, and engineering sciences into a
new field of Environmental Sciences had resulted from the rapid techno-
logical developments that have occurred in response to the urgent needs
* "An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine" (H. C. Greene, transi.), p. 5.
Dover, New York, 1957. Reprinted through permission of the publisher.
xiii
xiv FOREWORD
of our expanding urban and industrial society. The Editors hope that this
series will substantially influence and give direction to as yet unexplored
areas of study as well as serve as a medium for the results of current
research. (Editorial Policy)
Where effects on man are of primary concern, the term "environmental health
sciences" is often used; but the fact that man is but part of an ecosystem—albeit
a dominant and disturbing part—cannot be forgotten.
The central theme of the series is man in relation to his physical environ-
ment. However, because there is an obvious mutual interdependence be-
tween man and the plant and animal life around him, the interaction of
environmental factors with other forms of life will be an integral part of this
publication program. (Editorial Policy)
The Environmental Sciences Series was instituted to meet a need. Worthy
material was already in preparation. The Second Edition of "Air Pollution,"
edited by Arthur C. Stern, in three volumes, was chosen as the inaugural item.
The proceedings of the Bretton Woods Symposium on "Physiological Charac-
terization of Health Hazards in Man's Environment," held in the fall of 1966,
was chosen as the second entry in the series. These proceedings have appeared,
in part, in the October number (Nos. 5-6, Vol. 2, 1969) of the periodical En-
vironmental Research. They are reproduced here, together with synopses of other
papers that were presented but not included in the journal, and summaries of
formal discussion. Specially prepared monographs such as "Chemical Mutagens:
Environmental Effects on Biological Systems" by L. Fishbein, H. Falk, and
G. Flamm, now ready for publication, will continue the Series.
As Minard remarks in the opening chapter of the current volume, the National
Academy of Sciences-National Research Council was asked to "undertake a
broad-based critical study of the physiological underpinning of current concepts
of biological responses to toxic chemicals and physical stresses." The nature of
the participation is indicative of the extent to which even recent attitudes have
changed in the biological sciences. The demands of World War II left environ-
mental physiology with the definite image of being concerned primarily with the
response of the total organism (man) to specific stresses which were predomi-
nantly physical. Appeal was made to organ systems for explanation of the re-
sponses observed, but seldom was cellular, let alone subcellular function consid-
ered. Less than one-third of the material presented at the Symposium, by even
the most generous estimate, was of this character. The majority of the presenta-
tions, seen apart from the meeting's title, would most likely be labeled "molecular
biology," or at least applications of that currently popular field. To a certain
extent the emphasis on intracellular phenomena might be attributed to the fact
that toxic chemicals were specifically cited in the assignment, but even with
physical factors, such as heat, and certainly ionizing radiation, the ultimate re-
sponse is now sought at the molecular, or at least at the organelle, level. New
concepts, new techniques, and new types of investigator are involved, emphasiz-
FOREWORD XV
ing, if any emphasis is needed, the futility of setting any boundaries on environ-
mental sciences other than the pragmatic one of relevance.
While one might expect a textbook to present its field in organized and com-
prehensive fashion, a symposium necessarily follows more of an illustrative pat-
tern, according to the personal interests or even idiosyncrasies of the participants.
It is interesting to note that, in spite of these limitations, the presentations did
in fact cover the range of physiological concerns with environmental effects,
from the genetic to the temporal, and from the molecular to the holistic. This
volume presents in microcosm the illustrative, or even opportunistic selectivity
that the Series will revel in its macrocosm. In so doing, both this volume and the
Series happily parallel a growing trend in higher education—that of developing
individual capabilities around suitable topics, instead of trying to give every
student a standardized, comprehensive and perchance indigestible concentrate of
what authority thinks he ought to have. The success of the Series will, we hope,
be judged by the success with which its readers apply the principles presented.
DOUGLAS H. K. LEE
E. WENDELL HEWSON
DANIEL A. OKUN
Series Editors
The Bretton Woods Symposium: Physiological Characterization
of Health Hazards in Man's Environment
DAVID MINARD
Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Industrial growth and innovation based on scientific and engineering achieve-
ments are the means by which a technological society converts its resources
into products and services which both enhance the material wealth of the
nation and also provide sophisticated weaponry for its defense.
In the main, such growth raises living standards by increasing the quality
and quantity of food, housing, transportation, and sanitation. By reducing
toil, technology allows more leisure time for the citizens of a civilized society
to enjoy educational and recreational pursuits.
On the other hand, technological progress coupled with population growth
and urbanization, has introduced into the environment man-made hazards to
health in the form of synthetic industrial and agricultural chemicals, toxic
elements, industrial and community waste products, new sources and kinds of
energy, as well as psychophysiological stresses such as crowding and noise.
Detrimental effects on health of some of these stresses are immediately apparent,
while other long-range effects are only dimly perceived, but considered by many
as being of ominous dimensions.1
It is clear that our society must weigh carefully the benefits it enjoys from
technological accomplishments and industrial growth against the costs it may
have to pay in terms of present or future health impairment of its people
stemming from man-made hazards and also from the loss of esthetic qualities of
living resulting from deleterious changes in the human ecosystem.
The best available advice from authorities in various fields of science and
engineering, commerce, the health professions, and the social sciences will
be needed to identify, characterize, and anticipate public health hazards in
the environment. Only from such informed sources can our society reach wise
decisions in formulating operational plans for controlling further proliferation
of environmental health hazards, and where feasible, restoring a more favor-
able environment.
The United States Public Health Service has long recognized its responsibility
for health protection of the population not only against infectious diseases,
but also against chemical and physical hazards in the community and work
environments. To this end the USPHS had established action programs for the
study and control of health hazards in various categories of the environment,
1 Joint House-Senate colloquium to discuss a national policy for the environment. Hearing
before the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Ninetieth Congress, July 17, 1968, No. 8.
1
2 DAVID MINARD
including water supply, milk and food sanitation, sanitary engineering, air
pollution, radiological health, and occupational health.
In its report to the Surgeon General in 1962, the Committee on Environmental
Health Problems (better known as the Gross Committee) outlined future
national needs in environmental health and recommended substantial expansion
in manpower and facilities for intramural research and training, in order to pro-
vide technical and advisory services to the states, and also to expand extramural
programs of training and research in each of these categorical areas of environ-
ment health.
A major concern of the Gross Committee, however, was the need for a far
more detailed understanding than now exists of the complex interactions of
man as a biological system with the multiple physical, chemical, biological,
and psychosocial environmental stresses which impinge upon him individually
and in social groups. The Gross Committee urged the organization within the
USPHS of an Office of Environmental Health Sciences which would include
biological, physical, and social scientists as well as mathematicians whose
mission would be to study and conduct research on basic problems in environ-
mental health of common interest to the several categorical environmental health
agencies within USPHS. The intent of the recommendation was that the re-
search studies supported by this office would be more basic, longer term, and
more interdisciplinary than was possible under then existing action programs.
In 1966, Congress authorized creation of an Environmental Health Center2
which was subsequently established within the National Institutes of Health
with a National Center of Environmental Health Sciences in the Research
Triangle in North Carolina, to conduct the intramural research programs to-
gether with additional funds to support extramural programs of research and
training through project and center grants to universities.
Anticipating the founding of DEHS (now NIEHS), scientists within USPHS
undertook a re-evaluation of the role that physiology would play in investi-
gations of the toxic effects of environmental agents on human health and the
interplay of these agents with other environmental stresses. Their conclusion
was that environmental physiology in the past had not sufficiently clarified
the multiple chains of cause and effect mechanisms which exist between the
exposure of man to environmental agents and the integrated response of his
biological systems at the molecular, cellular, and higher levels of organization.3
Hence, in 1965 the USPHS proposed that the National Academy of Sciences-
National Research Council undertake a broad-based critical study of the
physiological underpinning of current concepts of biological responses to toxic
chemicals and physical stresses.
NAS-NRC had previously taken the lead in studies in man's management
of his environment and had issued two substantive reports: "The Management
of National Resources," and more recently "Waste Management and Control"
(the Spilhaus Report), which together with a third report emanating from the
President's Advisory Committee, "Restoring the Quality of our Environment"
2 Now the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences.
3D. H. K. Lee (background paper for participants in the Bretton Woods Symposium).
HEALTH HAZARDS IN MANS ENVIRONMENT 3
(The Tukey Report), formed a thoughtful and comprehensive treatment of
the effects of technological trends and innovations, as well as industrial expan-
sion, on the natural environment and their resulting impact on human ecology.
Specific recommendations dealt with means for identifying, predicting, and
controlling deleterious changes in environment insofar as these reflect themselves
in impairment of human health.
In response to the proposal of the USPHS, the Committee on Environmental
Physiology (Appendix A) of the Academy Research Council Division of Medi-
cal Sciences—the latter then under the chairmanship of R. Keith Cannan—
organized the Symposium on Physiological Characterization of Health Hazards
in Man's Environment. With funding from the USPHS, this 2% day meeting
was held in August, 1966, at Bretton Woods, New Hampshire.
Among the participants were prominent authorities from biomédical dis-
ciplines ranging from molecular biology to human ecology, and including toxi-
cology, biochemistry, oncology, pathology, and human genetics, as well as
several subspecialties of physiology.
In the opening plenary session, the Co-Chairmen of the Symposium, Dr.
Cannan and Dr. Minard, outlined the objectives of the meeting and proposed
a plan of attack to be undertaken by the assembled scientists in fulfilling the
aims of the Symposium.
In contrasting the relative simplicity of protecting human health against
specific agents of infection and nutritional deficiencies, which had been largely
controlled through application of principles of public health and environmental
sanitation, the Conference Chairmen underscored the complexity of environ-
mental health problems now facing the nation. The participants were asked to
consider and discuss perplexing questions such as these: How does one assess
the long-term effect of chronic exposure to low concentrations of toxic agents
acting singly or in concert with other chemical or physical agents? How does
one identify susceptible subgroups within the population who may be at special
risk because of age, sex, genetic background, or pre-existing physical impair-
ments? To what extent is the aging process itself accelerated by exposure to
harmful agents acting at concentrations too low to elicit clearly more obvious
signs of toxicity? To what extent are diseases of unknown etiology, such as
chronic degenerative diseases affecting the cardiovascular and respiratory sys-
tems, aggravated by exposure to environmental agents?
Attention was called to growing evidence that a significant proportion of
malignancies may be initiated, or promoted, by environmental factors. Unlike
the great epidemic diseases of the past, present diseases associated with
development and aging of the human organism are of complex etiology; multi-
ple factors are involved and doubtless in many cases those inherent in the
hosts are of primary importance. Nonetheless, a persevering search must go on
to identify and control harmful factors stemming from the environment.
Further questions were those relating to man's capacity to adapt to a
changing environment. Dire predictions had been heard about the possibility
of reaching some point of no return in the buildup of toxic agents in our
environment. Before entertaining such suggestions seriously, one must recognize
