Table Of ContentTHE PRESIDENT’S COUNCIL
ON PHYSICAL FITNESS AND SPORTS
R E P O R T
Physical Activity
& Sport in the
Lives of Girls
PHYS I C A L & M E N TA L H E A LT H D I M E N S I O N S
F R O M A N I N T E R D I S C I P L I N A RY A P P R OAC H
U N D E R T H E D I R E C T I O N O F
THE CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS & WOMEN IN SPORT
UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA
S U P P O R T E D B Y
The Center for Mental Health Services / Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
Message from Donna E. Shalala
Secretary of Health and Human Services
he year 1996 marked a breakthrough in our understanding of the benefits of
physical activity and health for all Americans. With the publication of the first
TSurgeon General’s Report on Physical Activity and Health, we have clearly
documented the fact that men and women of all ages can improve the quality of their lives
through a lifelong practice of regular moderate physical activity. And the research indicates
that physical activity need not be strenuous to achieve real health benefits. A regular,
preferably daily routine of at least 30-45 minutes of brisk walking, bicycling, or even
dancing will reduce the risks of developing coronary heart disease, hypertension, colon
cancer, and diabetes. Moreover, regular physical activity can reduce symptoms of
depression and anxiety; help control weight; and help build and maintain healthy bones,
muscles and joints.
Childhood and adolescence are critical times to lay the foundation for lifelong
physical activity, but, unfortunately, too many young people, especially girls, are not active
enough. As children grow into adolescence, their participation in physical activity declines
dramatically. As the Surgeon General’s report tells us, almost half our young people aged 12
to 21 are not vigorously active on a regular basis and 14 percent are completely inactive.
And young females are twice as likely to be inactive as young males.
These are dangerous trends, and we need to change them. Fortunately, this
landmark report on Physical Activity & Sport in the Lives of Girls from the President’s
Council on Physical Fitness and Sports tells us some of the steps we can take to enable
girls to reach their full potential. It tells us that we need to provide more quality school-
based physical education for girls. It tells us that we need to encourage girls to get involved
in sport and physical activity at an early age. It tells us that we need to challenge
stereotypes that impede girls’ participation in sports. And it tells us that we have made
progress in some areas. For example, the Title IX legislation enacted in 1972 has opened the
doors for millions of girls to participate in school sports.
Americans took enormous pride in the accomplishments of the 1996 Olympic gold
medal female athletes in soccer, softball, swimming, track and field, gymnastics, basketball,
and other sports. We need to build on that spirit and develop a national commitment to
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ensure that every girl receives the encouragement, training, and support she needs to
develop and maintain an active lifestyle. Increasing physical activity among girls is a
formidable public health challenge, but the potential rewards are great: a more vigorous
nation, better health and greater leadership opportunities for girls, prevention of premature
death and unnecessary illness, and a higher quality of life for our citizens. I strongly
encourage all Americans to join us in this effort.
iv
Message from the President’s Council
on Physical Fitness and Sports
n the summer of 1996, our nation cheered the performance and achievements of the
U.S. women Olympians and Paralympians. The images of strong, active women were
Iinspiring, a long way from the days when females were relegated to “lady-like” sports
and young girls were left on the sidelines as their brothers played.
Following on the heels of the Surgeon General’s Report on Physical Activity and
Health, this landmark review makes clear that participation in physical activity and sport
can help girls weather the storms of adolescence and lay the foundation for a healthier adult
life. The report looks at “the complete girl” through an interdisciplinary approach to
investigate the impact of physical activity and sport participation.
The conclusions are striking: regular physical activity can reduce girls’ risk of
many of the chronic diseases of adulthood; female athletes do better academically and have
lower school drop-out rates than their nonathletic counterparts; and, regular physical
activity can enhance girls’ mental health, reducing symptoms of stress and depression and
improving self-esteem.
But further vigilance and research are needed to ensure that all girls and boys can
experience these same benefits. While Title IX has a tremendous impact on expanding
physical activity opportunities for females, its compliance and enforcement have often
wavered. Parents, teachers, and coaches should be encouraged to challenge stereotypes
about girls’ participation in physical activity and sport. There is a lack of information and
research about how race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status might affect girls’ sport and
fitness involvement.
I greatly appreciate the support of the Members of the President’s Council for this
endeavor, which stemmed from the Council’s Task Force on Girls and Minorities. Their
enthusiasm and unflinching support for expanding the reach of the PCPFS into important
areas such as this have been critical to the successful completion of this important project.
Council Member Deborah Slaner Larkin deserves special recognition for her vision
and commitment to this report and for her many years of leadership in promoting
opportunities in physical activity and sports for girls and women.
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I would like to thank the Center for Research on Girls & Women in Sport, under
the able leadership of Dr. Mary Jo Kane, and the Center for Mental Health Services, our
partners in this endeavor.
It is my hope that this report will serve as a catalyst for parents, coaches, educators,
researchers, and community leaders to encourage and create opportunities for girls and
young women to become—and remain—more physically active throughout their lives.
Sandra Perlmutter
Executive Director
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Letter from the Project Directors
Dear reader:
On behalf of the President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports, we are honored to
present this research report. All of us who have been involved with the project have a great
respect for the power that sport and physical activity can wield. Such involvement has
helped shape our lives. In fact, it is a major reason why many of us have chosen this area as
our life’s work.
Physical Activity and Sport in the Lives of Girls: Physical and Mental Health
Dimensions from an Interdisciplinary Approach was created to highlight the multiplicity of
ways in which physical activity and sport have become an integral part of girls’ lives. It
examines the benefits girls derive from participation in physical activity and sport; the
barriers that prevent them from reaching their full potential; and the kinds of environments
in which girls learn how to develop and foster the best parts of themselves both on and off
the playing fields. The report was also created to develop future research paths and policy
recommendations as a guide for planning and programming.
This is a groundbreaking report because it marks the first time an interdisciplinary
approach has been used in a government document that examines the impact of sport and
physical activity in the lives of girls. We have chosen authors who are experts in the
physiological, sociological, psychological and mental health fields to each write a section
discussing significant issues in their respective academic areas. The interdisciplinary
approach is particularly important because it enables us to talk about the “complete girl”—
her social, physical, emotional and cultural environment—rather than just one aspect of a
girl’s experience. It should be noted that, on occasion within the report, the authors present
differing points of view with respect to certain research findings. For example, scientific
studies in the mental health field may suggest a particular relationship between self-esteem
and physical activity that has not been identified in the area of sport sociology. This should
not be interpreted as problematic or contradictory; instead, it can be viewed as an
opportunity for further discussion and for reinforcement of the need for future
interdisciplinary research. Finally, one strength of this report is a reference list that includes
numerous citations from a variety of academic disciplines. Such a list can be an invaluable
resource for academics, educators and practitioners.
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Related to the issue of interdisciplinarity, you will find when reading the report
that different authors use different terminology when talking about girls. As a general rule,
however, the word “girl” is used when authors are referring to girls 18 and under. Other
terminology is used to further delineate age. For example, “adolescent female” typically
refers to girls between the ages of 13-18, while “young girl” generally signifies 11 and
under.
While the amount of research covered in this report is thorough and in-depth,
because of space limitations, we could not include every aspect of what is known about the
many ways in which sport and physical activity influence girls. We also addressed many
issues related to diversity such as cultural or racial heritage and different physical abilities.
However, what is clear from the authors’ findings is that we have a great deal more to learn
about the particular ways in which involvement in sport and physical activity affects
minority groups of girls. We urge others to use this document as a way to pursue future
areas of research; many potential directions are outlined in detail in the authors’ research
sections.
It is important that the information presented in this document reaches a variety of
audiences from parents, teachers and coaches to administrators and policy makers in
educational institutions and government agencies. Everyone involved in the lives of our
children needs to know what factors contribute to girls’ development. Our hope is that
those most able to effect change will use this information as a vehicle for pursuing future
areas of research and developing and implementing programs that will make a difference in
one of this country’s most important assets—girls.
Finally, this report is dedicated to all of the parents, physical education teachers,
coaches and athletic administrators who recognize the importance of sport and physical
activity for all girls. These hard-working individuals spend their days on the ball fields and
playgrounds teaching skills and developing a young girl’s character. They are on the phone
at night organizing the next game, event or season. Their weekends are often spent at
meetings and conferences. They fight for Title IX compliance, coverage of a game or a
walkathon in the local paper, new uniforms, adequate facilities and safe fields. Without their
commitment and dedication to bettering the lives of girls throughout this country, this
report would not have been possible. We are all in their debt!
Mary Jo Kane Deborah Slaner Larkin
Project Director Project Director
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Contents
Message from the Secretary of Health and
Human Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iii
Message from the President’s Council on Physical
Fitness and Sports, Executive Director . . . . . . . . . . . . . .v
Letter from the Project Directors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vii
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xi
Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xiii
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xix
RESEARCH REPORTS:
SECTION I: Physiological Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
SECTION II: Psychological Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
SECTION III: Sociological Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
SECTION IV: Mental Health Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Policy Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
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