Mineral Exploration: Practical Application

301 Pages·2018·6.19 MB·English

by  G.S. Roonwal (auth.)

Springer Geology
G.S. Roonwal
Mineral
Exploration:
Practical
Application
Springer Geology
The book series Springer Geology comprises a broad portfolio of scientific books,
aiming at researchers, students, and everyone interested in geology. The series
includes peer-reviewed monographs, edited volumes, textbooks, and conference
proceedings.Itcoverstheentireresearchareaofgeologyincluding,butnotlimited
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structural geology, geomorphology, paleontology, and sedimentology.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10172
G.S. Roonwal
Mineral Exploration:
Practical Application
123
G.S. Roonwal
Inter-University Accelerator Centre
NewDelhi
India
ISSN 2197-9545 ISSN 2197-9553 (electronic)
SpringerGeology
ISBN978-981-10-5603-1 ISBN978-981-10-5604-8 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-5604-8
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2017946036
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Preface
Geologists and mining people are concerned mostly with the geological aspects of
mineral resources and required to be able to judge the technical feasibility and the
estimate of economic potential of a mineral deposit when recommending a
defended exploration. We need to recognize the significance of geological, tech-
nical,administrativeandpoliticalinfluenceonminingandmineralprocessingwhen
evaluatingeconomicpotentialofaprospectivedeposit.Miningengineersherehave
to understand the ways in which geological, economic and political factors affect
the feasibility of a project.
In this book, I wish to introduce students, beginners and possibly professionals
to the essentials of concepts of mineral exploration, mine evaluation and resource
assessmentofthediscoveredmineraldeposit.Itistruethateachoftheseaspectsis
available in detail in the specialized literature. I have attempted to integrate their
importantaspectswithanaimtogivethemtothosewhoarewillingtogetinvolved
in mineral exploration and resources with broad synthesis.
As we have the knowledge of the earth crust, structure and in particular the
regional setting of ore deposits have no doubt increased during the past decades.
Butmuchofitisconcernedwithpetrology,mineralogy,structuralandstratigraphy.
Little is on the exploration of mineral deposits. When present, it is in papers
scattered through the journals. The Society of Economic Geology, a geochemical
exploration society, has added to our knowledge of mineral exploration. It is thus
important to present a book hard for adoption for starting serious interest in
exploration of ore deposits.
Thetaskofcompilingthisbookprovedtobeaformidableone.Toachievethis,I
needed the support and cooperation of several people. I should acknowledge the
direct support so readily and cheerfully provided. A ready and cheerful support
camefrommycolleagues attheInterUniversityAcceleratorCentre(IUAC), andI
should specially mention my sincere thanks to Dr. D. Kanjilal, the Director of
IUAC, and Dr. Sundeep Chopra, Head of our AMS Unit. They both cheerfully
supported my endeavour. However, this has become possible only due to support
oftheDepartmentofScienceandTechnology(DST),andthein-chargeofUSERS
scheme Dr. S.S. Kohli in particular.
v
vi Preface
This compilation would not have been possible without the willing discussions
and encouragement of professional colleagues. Professor Hojatollah Ranjbar of
ShahidBahonarUniversityofKermankindlyreadthroughthefullmanuscriptand
contributed a chapter on remote sensing in mineral exploration and Mr. S.N.
Sharma of Faridabad for review of surveying chapter and Prof. B.C. Sarkar of the
IndianSchoolofMines(ISM),DhanbadandProf.A.K.BansalofDelhiUniversity,
forthereviewofchapterongeo-statisticsinmineralexploration.AndIampleased
to acknowledge the rapid and efficient assistance of Narender Kumar; Mr. Aninda
BoseandMs.KamiyaKhatterofSpringer,NewDelhi,fortheirsupport.Athome,I
have received encouragement from Prashant, Geetu and loving care of Kabir and
Kanav during the writing of this work.
After all mineral exploration islike:“Achild liesinagrey pebble ontheshore
untilacertainteacherpickshimupanddipshiminthewater,andsuddenlyyousee
all the colours and patterns in the dull stone, and it’s marvellous for the teacher”
(Elizabeth Hay in Alone in the Classroom, McClelland and Steward 2011, p.94).
New Delhi, India G.S. Roonwal
Contents
1 Mineral Resources and Exploration.. .... .... .... .... ..... .... 1
1.1 Concept of Mineral Exploration. .... .... .... .... ..... .... 1
1.2 Accessible and Available Resource and Reserves.... ..... .... 3
1.3 Estimation of Undiscovered Resources.... .... .... ..... .... 4
1.4 Economic—Definition of Exploration. .... .... .... ..... .... 5
1.5 Geological Cycles and the Formation of Mineral Deposits.. .... 8
1.6 Project Effectiveness and Success Ratio... .... .... ..... .... 12
Further Readings. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 15
2 Composition of the Earth and Mineral Resources .. .... ..... .... 17
2.1 Crust of the Earth... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 17
2.1.1 Common Rock Forming Minerals. .... .... ..... .... 18
2.1.2 Physical Characteristics of Minerals ... .... ..... .... 19
2.1.3 Importance of Mineralogical Characteristics . ..... .... 24
2.1.4 Mineralogical Identification.. .... .... .... ..... .... 25
2.2 Formation of Rocks and Mineral Deposits. .... .... ..... .... 27
2.2.1 Igneous Rocks.... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 27
2.2.2 Sedimentary Rocks .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 32
2.2.3 Metamorphic Rocks.... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 34
2.3 Other Ore-Forming Processes and the Resultant Mineral
Deposits .. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 37
2.3.1 Guide to Locate Oxidation Enrichment Ores. ..... .... 39
2.4 Geological Structures ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 41
2.4.1 Structure of Igneous Rocks.. .... .... .... ..... .... 41
2.4.2 Structures of Sedimentary Rocks.. .... .... ..... .... 42
2.4.3 Structures of Metamorphic Rocks. .... .... ..... .... 43
2.4.4 Other Structures... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 43
Further Readings. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 58
vii
viii Contents
3 The Search for Ore Deposits and Chances of Success ... ..... .... 59
3.1 Geological Models and Methods of Exploration. .... ..... .... 59
3.1.1 Efficiency of the Method in Exploration .... ..... .... 61
3.2 Exploration Procedure..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 62
3.2.1 Preliminary Exploration. .... .... .... .... ..... .... 62
3.2.2 Detailed Exploration ... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 65
3.3 Types of Deposits and Exploration... .... .... .... ..... .... 66
3.4 Exploration Norms.. ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 68
3.5 Analyzing Exploration Data .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 70
3.6 Economics of Exploration and Mining.... .... .... ..... .... 74
3.7 Organization and Methods in Mineral Exploration... ..... .... 79
3.8 Recruitment and Deployment of Personnel. .... .... ..... .... 82
3.9 Procurement of Equipment Needed in Mineral Exploration . .... 84
3.10 Methods in Exploration ... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 87
3.11 Developmental Phase in Exploration . .... .... .... ..... .... 92
3.12 Ground Exploration Methods ... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 93
3.12.1 Regional Geological Mapping.... .... .... ..... .... 93
3.12.2 Geological Mapping by Compass and Tape/Pacing. .... 94
3.13 Geophysical Methods..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 96
3.14 Nuclear Methods ... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 99
3.15 Geochemical Mapping and Sampling. .... .... .... ..... .... 100
3.16 Other Field Procedures.... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 102
3.17 Drilling... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 107
3.18 Sampling . .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 113
3.18.1 Principles... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 113
3.18.2 Types of Sampling .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 114
3.18.3 Criteria for the Selection of a Sampling Procedure
for a Particular Mineral Type .... .... .... ..... .... 115
3.18.4 Spacing of Sample Channels. .... .... .... ..... .... 116
3.18.5 Collection of Samples.. .... .... .... .... ..... .... 116
Further Reading . .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 117
4 Remote Sensing in Mineral Exploration .. .... .... .... ..... .... 119
4.1 Concept .. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 119
4.2 Remote Sensing System... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 120
4.2.1 Remote Sensing Sensors .... .... .... .... ..... .... 120
4.2.2 EM Spectrum .... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 127
4.2.3 Spectral Characteristics of Hydrothermal Alteration
Minerals ... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 127
4.3 Discrete or Digital Image Processing of Satellite/Airborne
Images ... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 129
4.3.1 Image Registration. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 130
4.3.2 Image Enhancement ... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 130
4.3.3 Contrast Stretching .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 131
Contents ix
4.3.4 Band Rationing... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 131
4.3.5 Addition and Subtraction.... .... .... .... ..... .... 132
4.3.6 Principal Component Analysis (PCA).. .... ..... .... 133
4.3.7 Red-Green-Blue (RGB) Coding... .... .... ..... .... 133
4.3.8 Spectral Angle Mapper (SAM) ... .... .... ..... .... 133
4.3.9 Image Filtering ... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 134
4.4 Application of Remote Sensing in Mineral Exploration .... .... 135
4.4.1 Geological Structures... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 136
4.4.2 Hydrothermal Alteration Mapping. .... .... ..... .... 138
4.4.3 Application of Remote Sensing in Bauxite
and Carbonate Exploration .. .... .... .... ..... .... 146
4.4.4 Application of Remote Sensing in Exploration
of Placer Deposits. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 147
4.4.5 Application of Remote Sensing for Iron Ore
Exploration . ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 148
4.4.6 Remote Sensing Application for Chromite
Exploration . ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 149
Further Readings. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 151
5 Survey in Exploration.... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 155
5.1 Aims and Objectives of Surveying in Exploration ... ..... .... 155
5.2 Methods of Surveying .... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 156
5.2.1 Triangulation..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 157
5.2.2 Traversing.. ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 159
5.2.3 Levelling... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 160
5.2.4 Contouring . ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 163
5.2.5 Tacheometry ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 163
5.2.6 Plane Tabling .... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 163
5.2.7 Chain or Linear Surveying .. .... .... .... ..... .... 166
5.2.8 Traversing with Compass ... .... .... .... ..... .... 166
5.3 Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS) . .... ..... .... 167
5.3.1 DGPS Basic Concepts.. .... .... .... .... ..... .... 168
5.3.2 Purpose of the DGPS Survey .... .... .... ..... .... 168
5.3.3 Instrument and Technical Specification. .... ..... .... 168
5.3.4 DGPS Survey Steps.... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 169
5.3.5 DGPS Point Selection Criteria.... .... .... ..... .... 169
5.4 Underground Surveys..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 171
5.5 Equipment and Norms of Surveying.. .... .... .... ..... .... 173
Further Readings. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 175
6 The Statistical Treatment of Exploration Data and Computer
Application. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 177
6.1 Introduction ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 177