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LINGUISTIC VARIATIONS AND
THE QUESTION OF STANDARDIZATION
IN SETSWANA
by
MAPHUTSHE HELLEN EVELYN KHOALI
sumbmitted in the fulfilment
of the requirements for the degree of
PHILOSOPHIAE DOCTOR rAo<..:;R..:..;TI:..:;:U~M~ ..,
VISTA UNIVEPSlTY
17AUG 2lJllO
in the
L1BRrlnl
SOWETO CAMPUS
DEPARTMENT OF SOTHO LANGUAGES
at
VISTA UNIVERSITY
SUPERVISOR: PROFESSOR R.S. CHAPHOLE
JANUARY 1998
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* *
0 4 0 2 3 0 6 4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to send my sincere appreciationto my supervisor, Professor R.S. Chaphole,
Dean of the Faculty of Arts, Vista University, for his understanding, guidance and
encouragementthroughout the writing of this thesis.
I must alsoacknowledgethe help I receivedfrom the followinglibrarians, Mrs M. Moloko
and Ms N. Kuzwayo; reproductionofficers, Mr M.C. Mafisa and Mrs M. Leolo.
I cannot forget Mrs A. Sithole, Ms S. Makete, and Ms S. Hlabedi for doing the initial
typing, Mrs M.D. MhIongofor her excellentwork in making the final typing and settingof
the manuscript and Ms N. Motswagae for her great assistance in the final printing of the
research.
I am also thankful to Vista University for an ad hoc grant which enabled me to do my
research.
My gratitude is also due to all those people who helped me in one way or another, in the
field, during the course of my research. They are too many to mention all by their names
here. I must, however, record the following:
Mr M.R. Maotwe of Mabopane whoworked at the then Radio Setswana now Motsweding
F.M. from 1967 to 1980 as a programme compiler and joined Radio Bophuthatswana in
1980; only to rejoin Radio Setswana in 1981. He terminated his service in July 1997.
Reverend A.S. Phiri of Mabopane, who worked at the then Radio Setswana and now
Motsweding F.M., from 1974until July 1997; Mrs V. Makapan, the chiefs wife, at Ga
Mosetlha, who has a good knowledgeof Setswanadialects in Pretoria and the surrounding
areas and also those at Mafikeng and the surrounding areas; Mr T.D. Ranamane of
University of South Africa; Professor R.M. Malope of University of North West; Dr N.J.
Manyaka of Vista University; Mr W. Manana of Vista University, Mr J. Shole of Taung
College of Education; Dr G.K. Schuring, of H.S.R.C; Dr J. Tsonope of Botswana
University; Mr L.Z. S. Moalusi, a lawyer at Rustenburg, Mr M.A. Zirnba, the principal of
Moletsane High School, in Soweto; Mrs M. Kgarurne, the Setswanahead of department,
Nchaupe High School, in GaMosetlha; Mr M. Letsholo, Setswana head of department,
D.A.B. WatsonPrimary School in Soweto.
I am also grateful to my children: Dihlonamo, Koro, Thato and Nthatisi; to my sisters and
brothers, Lettie, Mpopo, Setlogane, Motsei, Sebaibaiand Kealeboga, for bearing with me
throughout the duration of this study, and always being there for me when there was need
for help.
Finally, I am thankful to Godfor granting me stre :p.~6IDPtete-this study. . .
I::> IA 'UNI'''-y
17Av. tWU
ltbH,,-,,.
SOWETO CAMPUS
DECLARATION
"I declare that:
LINGUISTIC VARIATIONS AND THE QUESTION OF STANDARDIZATION IN
SETSWANA,
is my own work, that all the sources used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged
by means ofcomplete references, andthat this thesis was not previously submitted by me for
a degree at another university.
M.H.E. KROALI
SUMMARY
The main concern of this study has to do with the investigation of linguistic variation and
standardization in Setswana. We are of the ideathat linguisticvariation and standardization
occur as a result of both internal and external factors.
Focus of thisstudy was both onsomeofthoseareas inhabitedby Batswanaboth inBotswana
and South Africa. An investigation has been made on the different orthographies used in
these countries. Although their orthographies presently differ, they were initially the same.
They separated after the revision of the 1937 orthography version by the then Tswana
LanguageCommittee in SouthAfrica. But, however, SetswanaStandard Orthography 1981
(1981) in Botswana, is the same as Tswana Terminology and Orthography No.3 (1972) in
South Africa. This similarity was caused by the great influence and presence of Professor
E.S. Moloto.
Botswanadependency onSouthAfrica during thattime, on languageplanningmayhave been
because 'South Africa has more speakers of Setswana, has had larger total resources in
moneyand manpower, and thusrather naturally took the leadand Botswanaended following
suit' (JansonandTsonope, 1991:78). During that time, SouthAfrican policies were directed
by the ideology of the apartheid system. So, 'to ignore linguistic developments in South
Africa was impossible, but to accept them has often been unpalatable and maybe irnponent'
(Janson and Tsonope, 1991:78).
Data collected bear testimony that standard language is what Botswanapeople really want to
be taught at schools and tertiary institutions. Most of them do not really understand why
their children are expected to use standardized language as formal style. The reason behind
all these is that they were never involved in language planning. Therefore, there is great
need to involve people from different sectors where Setswana is involved. The language
policy for the new South Africa in the future should be written in all official languages not
just in English and Afrikaans only (refer to Government Gazette, 9 May 1997). Publication
inthe former two languages give the impressionthat all people in SouthAfrica are expected
(v)
to be bilingual or monolingual although neither of these languages was ever declared as a
national language. This research presents what is prevailing in those areas where Batswana
people are located.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
Title page (i)
Acknowledgements (ii)
Declaration (iii)
Summary (iv)
CHAPTER 1
1.0 Linguistic variations and the question of standardization 1
in Setswana
CHAPTER 2
2.0 A theoretical framework 37
CHAPTER 3
3.0 Variation in real time and apparent time and linguistic variation 74
caused by internal factors in Setswana
CHAPTER 4
4.0 Linguistic variation and external factors in Setswana 111
CHAPTERS
5.0 Standardization in written Setswana 171
CHAPTER 6
6.0 Summary, contributions, recommendations and possible 212
future directions
BIDLIOGRAPHY 225
APPENDIX 243
PAGE
CHAPTER 1
1.0 Linguistic variations and the question of standardization 1
in Setswana
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Motivation 3
1.3 Scope of study 4
1.4 Definitions and explanations ofconcepts 5
1.4.1 Speech community 6
1.4.2 Borrowing 8
1.4.3 Bilingualism 10
1.4.4 Code-switching and code-mixing 13
1.4.5 Dialect(s) 21
1.4.6 Linguistic repertoires 24
1.5 Data collection 26
1.5.1 Introduction 26
1.5.2 Variation across age level in apparent time 27
1.5.3 Linguistic variation in Setswana 31
1.6 Literature review 33
1.6.1 Literature review in Setswana 33
1.6.2 Literature review in other African Languages 34
VISTA UNIV~QSITY
17AUG 2DOO
lfBH4n
SOWETO CAMPUS
CHAPTERl
1.0 LINGUISTIC VARIATIONS ANDTHE QUESTION OFSTANDARDIZATION
INSETSWANA
1.1 INTRODUCTION
This studyintends to make a thorough investigationon linguisticvariations and the question
of standardization in Setswana. The term variety of language as Hudson (1980:24) puts it,
can beusedto refer to various manifestationsof it. Onevariety of languageisdifferent from
the other because of the linguistic items it includes.
Hudson (1980:24) goes on to defme a variety of language as a set of linguistic items with
similar social distribution. We may here consider Setswana which is a form of language
variety used by a group of people called Batswana who belong to the same social
distributions. Theterm 'variety' therefore includeswhatwenormally call languages;dialects
and registers.
Setswana, the languageunder investigation, is a member of the Sintugroup of Benue-Congo
languages. The term Sintu was used byKhumalo I.S.M. in his doctoral thesis in 1987. He
used the term Sintu because the term Bantu is offensive to most South African Blacks.
Chaphole R.S. also used the term Sintu in his doctoral thesis in 1988. He used this term
2
because Bleek's internationally used term Bantu has acquired very unpleasant connotations
in SouthAfrica. Setswana is spokeninmanydialectsbyBatswanaliving in SouthAfrica and
Botswana. In Botswana, Setswana is both an official language and a national language.
Setswana is an official languagealong withEnglish. Amongst Batswanaof Botswana, there
are people who use Setswana as a second language. Inclusive are the San, Hambukushu,
Ovaherero, Bakgalagadi, Bakalanga, Basarwa, Bayeyi and Basubiya.
In South Africa Setswana is one of the eleven official languages at national level namely
Sesotho, Sepedi, IsiZulu, IsiXhosa, Siswati, Sindebele, Tshivenda, Xitsonga, English and
Afrikaans. Setswana is also a provincial language in the North-West Region because
according to South Africa's New Language Policy: The facts (nd: 5-6):
A province may, by a two-thirds majority
vote, declare any of the national languages
a provincial official language for the
whole province or a part thereof. Every
language that was an official language
somewhere in South Africa up to April
1994 retains its official status there
since the Constitutionprovides
that language rights and statuses
may not be diminished (Section
3 (2) and (5».
