Introduction to optical metrology

437 Pages·2016·26.633 MB·English

by  Sirohi, R. S

Physics Sirohi
I n t r o d u c t i o n t o
O P T I C A L M E T R O L O G Y
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“A good book for students and professionals to learn both basic and
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practical aspects of optical metrology.”
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—Mitsuo Takeda, Center for Optical Research and Education, Utsunomiya r
University, Japan o
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“The theory and practice of optical metrology is equally weighted in this
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book, providing an ideal combination for the instructor, student, and
researcher.” c
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—Ramen Bahuguna, San Jose State University, California, USA
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“The author’s way of writing/explaining is very well adapted to students and
I n t r o d u c t i o n t o
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practical-thinking persons. The didactics show the long experience of the
author.”
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—W. Osten, University of Stuttgart, Germany
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OOPPTTIICCAALL MMEETTRROOLLOOGGYY
Introduction to Optical Metrology examines the theory and practice of O
various measurement methodologies utilizing the wave nature of light. The
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book begins by introducing the subject of optics, and then addresses the
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propagation of laser beams through free space and optical systems. After
explaining how a Gaussian beam propagates, how to set up a collimator I
to get a collimated beam for experimentation, and how to detect and C
record optical signals, the text: A
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• Discusses interferometry, speckle metrology, moiré phenomenon,
photoelasticity, and microscopy
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• Describes the different principles used to measure the refractive
indices of solids, liquids, and gases E
• Presents methods for measuring curvature, focal length, angle, T
thickness, velocity, pressure, and length
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• Details techniques for optical testing as well as for making fiber
optic- and MEMS-based measurements O
• Depicts a wave propagating in the positive z-direction by L
ei(ωt – kz), as opposed to ei(kz – ωt)
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Featuring exercise problems at the end of each chapter, Introduction to G
Optical Metrology provides an applied understanding of essential optical
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measurement concepts, techniques, and procedures.
K23100
ISBN: 978-1-4822-3610-1
90000
Rajpal S. Sirohi
9 781482236101
I n t r o d u c t i o n t o
OPTICAL METROLOGY
Optical Sciences and Applications of Light
Series Editor
James C. Wyant
University of Arizona
Introduction to Optical Metrology, Rajpal S. Sirohi
Charged Particle Optics Theory: An Introduction, Timothy R. Groves
Nonlinear Optics: Principles and Applications, Karsten Rottwitt and
Peter Tidemand-Lichtenberg
Photonics Modelling and Design, Slawomir Sujecki
Numerical Methods in Photonics, Andrei V. Lavrinenko, Jesper Lægsgaard,
Niels Gregersen, Frank Schmidt, and Thomas Søndergaard
Please visit our website www.crcpress.com for a full list of titles
I n t r o d u c t i o n t o
OPTICAL METROLOGY
Rajpal S. Sirohi
Te z p u r U n i v e r s i t y, I n d i a
Boca Raton London New York
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Version Date: 20150422
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Contents
Series Preface ..........................................................................................................xix
Preface.....................................................................................................................xxi
Acknowledgments ................................................................................................xxiii
Author ....................................................................................................................xxv
Chapter 1 Introduction to Optics ..........................................................................1
1.1 Introduction .............................................................................1
1.2 Law of Reflection ....................................................................2
1.3 Law of Refraction ....................................................................2
1.4 Interference .............................................................................3
1.5 Diffraction ...............................................................................6
1.5.1 Propagation of a Monochromatic Wave ...................7
1.5.2 Kirchhoff Theory of Diffraction ..............................7
1.5.3 Small Angle Approximation ....................................9
1.5.4 Fresnel Approximation ...........................................10
1.5.5 Fraunhofer Approximation .....................................11
1.6 Polarization ...........................................................................11
1.6.1 Polarization Ellipse ................................................12
1.6.2 Representation of Polarization ...............................12
1.6.2.1 Jones Vector ..........................................12
1.6.2.2 Stokes Vector .........................................15
1.7 Fresnel Equations ..................................................................18
1.8 Thin Film Optics ...................................................................19
1.9 Optical Components ..............................................................23
1.9.1 Reflective Components ...........................................23
1.9.1.1 Mirror ....................................................24
1.9.2 Refractive Components ..........................................24
1.9.2.1 Refraction at Dielectric Interface ..........24
1.9.3 Diffractive Components .........................................26
1.10 Refraction at Curved Interface ..............................................27
1.10.1 Lenses .....................................................................27
1.11 Paraxial Optics ......................................................................29
1.11.1 Translation Matrix ..................................................30
1.11.2 Refraction Matrix ...................................................30
1.11.2.1 Plane Dielectric Interface ......................30
1.11.2.2 Spherical Dielectric Interface ...............31
1.11.3 Matrix for a Thin Lens ...........................................32
Problems .............................................................................................34
vii
viii Contents
Chapter 2 Laser Beams .......................................................................................37
2.1 Gaussian Beams ......................................................................37
2.2 The ABCD Law for Gaussian Beams .....................................40
2.2.1 Free Space Propagation ..............................................41
2.2.2 Propagation through a Lens .......................................42
2.2.2.1 Beam Waist Lies at Plane 1 at the Lens .....42
2.2.2.2 Beam Waist Lies in Front of the Lens ........44
2.2.2.3 Beam Focusing ...........................................46
2.3 Laser Collimator ......................................................................46
2.4 Vortex Beams ..........................................................................48
2.5 Bessel Beams ...........................................................................49
Problems .............................................................................................49
Chapter 3 Sources, Detectors, and Recording Media .........................................53
3.1 Introduction .............................................................................53
3.2 Radiometric Units ....................................................................53
3.3 Blackbody ................................................................................54
3.4 Light Sources ...........................................................................55
3.4.1 Incandescent Tungsten Lamps ...................................56
3.4.2 Tungsten-Halogen Lamps ...........................................56
3.4.3 Discharge Lamps ........................................................57
3.4.4 Coherent Sources ........................................................57
3.4.4.1 Helium-Neon Laser ....................................57
3.4.4.2 Argon Ion Laser ..........................................58
3.4.4.3 Nd:YAG/Nd:Glass Laser .............................59
3.4.4.4 Semiconductor Lasers .................................60
3.5 Detectors ..................................................................................61
3.5.1 Eye ..............................................................................61
3.5.2 Photoelectric Detectors ..............................................61
3.5.2.1 Photoemissive Detectors .............................62
3.5.2.2 Photomultipliers ..........................................63
3.5.2.3 Photoconductive Detectors .........................64
3.5.2.4 Photovoltaic Detectors ................................64
3.5.2.5 Avalanche Photodiode ................................66
3.5.3 Thermal Detectors ......................................................67
3.6 Recording Media .....................................................................67
3.6.1 Photographic/Holographic Plates and Films ..............67
3.6.2 Dichromated Gelatin ..................................................71
3.6.3 Photoresists .................................................................72
3.6.4 Photopolymers ............................................................73
3.6.5 Thermoplastics ...........................................................73
3.6.6 Photochromics ............................................................74
3.6.7 Ferroelectric Crystals .................................................74
Contents ix
3.7 Image Detectors .......................................................................75
3.7.1 Time Delay and Integration Mode of Operation ........78
3.8 Spatial Light Modulators .........................................................79
Problems .............................................................................................82
Chapter 4 Interferometry ....................................................................................85
4.1 Introduction .............................................................................85
4.2 Early History ...........................................................................85
4.2.1 Arrival of Laser ..........................................................86
4.3 Generation of Coherent Waves/Sources ..................................87
4.3.1 Wave Front Division: Double-Slit Experiment ..........88
4.3.2 Amplitude Division: Plane Parallel Plate ...................89
4.4 Fringe Patterns .........................................................................91
4.4.1 Interference between Two Plane Waves .....................91
4.4.2 Interference between Two Plane Waves
of Slightly Different Frequencies ...............................92
4.5 Some More Interferometers .....................................................94
4.5.1 Two-Frequency Interferometer ...................................94
4.5.2 Doppler Interferometer ...............................................94
4.5.3 Cyclic Interferometer .................................................95
4.5.4 Shear Interferometer ...................................................95
4.6 Phase Shifting ..........................................................................96
4.6.1 Temporal Phase Shifting ............................................96
4.6.2 Spatial Phase Shifting ................................................97
Problems .............................................................................................98
Chapter 5 Techniques ........................................................................................101
5.1 Holography and Hologram Interferometry ............................101
5.1.1 Hologram Recording ................................................102
5.1.2 Reconstruction ..........................................................104
5.1.3 In-Line Holography ..................................................104
5.1.4 Off-Axis Holography ................................................105
5.1.4.1 Choice of Angle of the Reference Wave ...106
5.1.4.2 Choice of Intensity of the Reference
Wave .........................................................106
5.1.5 Types of Holograms .................................................106
5.1.5.1 Diffraction Efficiency ...............................108
5.1.6 Experimental Arrangement ......................................108
5.1.6.1 Lasers ........................................................108
5.1.6.2 Beam Splitters ...........................................108
5.1.6.3 Beam Expanders .......................................109
5.1.6.4 Object Illumination Beam ........................109