Table Of ContentIntroducing Wildlife
in Urban Ecosystems
Introducing Wildlife
in Urban Ecosystems
Amartya Deb
COPAL PUBLISHING GROUP
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First Published 2017
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“…The case for the conservation of nature and for the increase of
our accesses to her must be stated more seriously and strongly than
is customary. Not merely begged for on all grounds of amenity, of
recreation, and repose, sound though they are, but insisted upon.
On what grounds? In terms of the maintenance and development of
life….”
–(Geddes, 1915, p. 51)
Contents
Preface ix
1. Introduction to urban environment 1
1.1 Humans as species 1
1.2 Urbanisation and urban environment 3
1.3 Key drivers of urban environment 4
1.4 Ecosystems and biodiversity in urban centres 10
2. Understanding urban ‘wildlife’ 13
2.1 Character of wildlife 13
2.2 Wildlife in urban areas 14
2.3 Existing settings of ecology in urban areas 19
2.4 Factors affecting wildlife habitats in urban areas 43
3. Co-existence of animals and humans 45
3.1 Animal geography: Changing perceptions and 45
importance with time
3.2 Possibilities of coexistence 46
3.3 Human–animal interactions 48
3.4 Defining approaches for coexistence 55
4. Conservation of wildlife in urban areas 57
4.1 Goals of conservation of urban wildlife 57
4.2 Challenges and potential of wildlife conservation 65
in urban areas
4.3 Methods to conserve wildlife in urban areas 68
viii Introducing wildlife in urban ecosystems
5. Designing for wild animals and plants 71
5.1 Effect of design on plants and animals in urban areas 72
5.2 Designing spaces by nature of interaction 74
5.3 Projects and proposals by various architects to
encourage wildlife 82
6. Towards a resilient society with wildlife 86
6.1 Dealing with eco-gentrification 86
6.2 Open spaces vs. urban forests: Redesigning 89
recreation options
6.3 Social capital and a close knit society with nature 90
6.4 Alleviating poverty through natural landscapes 93
6.5 Policing wild pockets for safer communities 95
6.6 Disaster management: Fire safety 97
6.7 Responses to zoonotic diseases 100
Index 103
Preface
The idea of writing this book was conceived about a year back when my
friend Piyush Das, a conservation architect and academician based in New
Delhi, insisted me to translate one of my thought experiments into a book.
Of the several concepts I frequently dabbled in at the time, I chose to write
on wildlife and urban interface as it also reflects my desire at a personal
level. Briefly, before moving into the city, I had spent a significant part of
my life in the countryside of Kolkata. To describe such an environment,
I could choose a few words like ‘green’, ‘serene’, ‘clean’, ‘fresh’, ‘relaxing’,
‘stimulating’, ‘rejuvenating’ and ‘secure’. I can remember the large fields of
paddy and corn that invited colourful birds like parakeets; while kingfishers
and several small birds could be spotted around the ponds with ease.We
would use rods to fish every once in a while and catch crabs that inhabited
the banks of the lakes with our bare hands. Now the village I grew up in
is a full blown city, as if almost none of it existed before. I could witness a
completely isolated rural settlement convert from agrarian to industrial
economy. To think of the changes it bought in the landscape reminds me
of the emergence of many roads that split the seamless canvas of green
into many small parts. It came along with disappearance of natural fauna
like foxes, wildcats and rabbits that earlier inhabited the areas. The death
of majestic creatures like vultures which I later learnt was caused due
to introduction of a new drug for cattle called ‘diclofenac’ is perhaps the
most regretful memory I can recall.At the same time, with modernization
and industrialization there emerged more jobs and services and made life
more comfortable and economically favourable.Thus I felt it was necessary
to explore a possibility where urban expansion can accommodate the
benefits of ecological productivity as well. In this book I argue that this can
be achieved through preserving the wild character.
Planners, architects and designers are often accused of playing god, as
their discipline involves enforcing a pattern of activity and lifestyle on people
with or sometimes without their consent. While the planner focuses on
providing adequate land and services to the people, segregating activities
as he foresees to organize the urban space better, the politics of economy,
sociology and space transforms his visions into the reality and often not
x Introducing wildlife in urban ecosystems
quite in the same manner as he had originally imagined. Solution to a
better environment is not all that difficult as my friend environmentalist
once humorously offered that solution to be ‘exterminating the humans’.
It is a better environment ‘for and with the humans’ that has become such
a difficult task for planet earth. The cities are dilapidating, growing more
congested and at the same time encroaching into the seam of wilderness.
The green belts and forests are being engulfed into the grey fabric causing
habitat loss, fragmentation and destruction of wild life and diversity. Indeed
the study is needed to address these critical aspects.
A few and broad questions before I started writing were: In what ways
have the urban areas fostered nature differently from the autonomous
wilderness areas? Should urban areas be designed to accommodate more
animals? To what extent can conflicts be mitigated for existence of wildlife
in close proximities of humans? In what ways, can this vision help make a
more resilient society? Originally the book was supposed to be a wide-
ranging resource document for me to refer for clarity while arguing in
favour of the living environment. But I have decided to publish this in
case anyone else may benefit from the same. The book primarily aims to
distinguish between manmade nature and wild with focus on the benefits
of wilderness. In my course of learning I have come across three schools
of thought regarding this. The first believe in preserving existing natural
settings to be the best solution; the second believe with growing pressures
from wildlife activists and international tribunals, nature is slowly gaining
rights and negotiating power to save itself alongside the human race; and
the third question, if at all natural systems are indefinitely sustainable? For
instance, lake or pond eutrophication is a natural phenomenon caused
due to ecological succession and not necessarily man induced. Thus the
third group believes that change is inevitable in nature and designing new
habitats altogether may shape the way for future. Drawing from all of the
above, I have realized that each one of the above arguments have their
own place and context which are highlighted in the book.
Urban areas have already started creating habitats that are very different
from traditional natural habitats in terms of chemical composition; food,
water and nutrients availability; light exposure and terrain; re-defining
the scale of wildness in a way. The book also attempts to tell the story
from the lens of politics that play an important role in the process of co-
existence. For instance, the group of urban dwellers want open spaces for
recreation, cleaner air for health benefits, while the biologists advocate
Preface xi
for a conservation approach to safeguard biodiversity within the city.
Disadvantaged population of the cities who cannot afford to maintain
parks and yards either because of lack of money or space try to keep
potted plants on their balcony. A little more dedicated segment of the
population would perhaps keep a roof garden. But all of these processes
take place independently without the awareness of the efforts of others.
This book is an attempt to knit all of their needs and come up with a
holistic perspective for the green and grey to co-exist. However, it will
largely address needs and possibilities of wildlife to exist in urban areas
rather than the problems posed by ecosystem degradations in general. I
have shared personal experiences from various parts of India alongside
news, articles, documentaries, scientific papers, and reports that allowed
comparing views from different parts of the world.
Several references are deliberately cited from old publications to reflect
the early contributions in this topic; most of which is still available online.
Few ways in which the book will uniquely add to this knowledge would
be with new perspectives and multifaceted organization of information
for a quick overview to urban design and urban planning practitioners.
The book talks not in detail of biology but just enough for the spatial
engineers and policy makers to be able to develop an imagination. The
book presents conflicting ideas and suggests common grounds where
they can be addressed. The generic ways in which I believe the book can
stimulate action is in creating harmony between humans and wildlife by
reducing human–animal conflicts; conservation of native species; design
of desirable habitats; improving benefits of wild in cities and reduce costs
of ecological benefits for urban areas. At the same time it offers brief
discourses on prospects of creating employment, improving public health
and nature of public spaces.
I am deeply thankful to Dr. M. Jayashankar for his support towards
initiating the idea as a book and Pablo Bora for the much required
discussions in relevant areas and encouraging my work throughout from
the very conception of the idea. I am also thankful to Joyce Sequeira, Samik
Hazra, Sridipta Ghatak and Yash Pratap Singh Shekhawat along with Ashok
Thanikonda and Aditya Bajaj to have had commented briefly on the pieces
I had shared occasionally. Also among my peers, I am utmost thankful to
Pavan Tiwari for agreeing to author the first chapter of the book. Of the
many relevant things that I have learnt from him over the years, I have
found a responsible friend in him whom I could trust as a colleague.
