Information Modelling for Archaeology and Anthropology

434 Pages·2018·8.189 MB·english

by  Cesar Gonzalez-Perez

Cesar Gonzalez-Perez
Information Modelling
for Archaeology
and Anthropology
Software Engineering Principles
for Cultural Heritage
123
CesarGonzalez-Perez
Incipit, CSIC
SantiagodeCompostela, ACoruña
Spain
ISBN978-3-319-72651-9 ISBN978-3-319-72652-6 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72652-6
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2017961095
©SpringerInternationalPublishingAG2018
Preface
This book is the result of over 20 years of research and practice in the interdisci-
plinaryareaofinformationtechnologiesandculturalheritage.Inthe1990s,wehad
not heard yet of the “digital humanities”, but we were aware that archaeology,
anthropology and other areas in the humanities desperately needed proposals to
help manage the increasing amounts of information that they were generating, and
sustain the associated knowledge-generation practices. Today, this trend has only
intensified, and the application of solid, high-quality engineering principles to the
construction of information systems and knowledge-generation approaches in the
humanities is paramount. In particular, research in the humanities depends very
much on the information that is managed, how it is shaped and structured (i.e.
“modelled”), and how knowledge is generated from it through interpretive pro-
cesses. In the absence of a rigorous approach, we may end up being unable to use
our valuable information for the intended goals.
Thesoftwareandknowledgeengineeringdisciplineshavebeenusingconceptual
modelling for a while and exporting it to other fields such as biomedicine or
businessorganization.However,robustapplicationsofconceptualmodellingtothe
humanitiesarescarce.Inthisbook,weapplyprovenprinciplesandtechniquesfrom
thesoftwareandknowledgeengineeringfieldstotheproblemsofculturalheritage.
Also, we show how these principles and techniques have been adapted and
extended to cope with the peculiarities of the humanities and, specifically,
archaeology and anthropology.
This book is primarily aimed at students and teachers of data management,
information modelling and related areas in any field related to cultural heritage,
such as archaeology, anthropology, art, museology, geography, history, architec-
ture, archival science, literature, and even sociology or soil sciences. Other spe-
cialists in cultural heritage such as researchers, heritage managers or heritage
professionals working in industry can also use this book in a self-paced manner to
learn about the topic.
This book assumes no previous exposure by the reader to information tech-
nologies and no knowledge whatsoever of conceptual modelling, ontologies or
other topics in software or knowledge engineering. Technical detail is kept low or
moderate, and special technical asides used to provide highly specialized or com-
plex detailsonly whenneeded aremarked“Technical”.Youcansafelyskipthese
sections if not interested in the philosophical or engineering underpinnings of
things.Specificwordsorphrasesbeing discussedareshownindoublequotes,like
“this”. Single quotes, like ‘this’, are used to refer not to the words but to the
underlying concepts. Bibliographic references mentioned in the text are indicated
by numbers in brackets, like this [15]. There is a reference list at the end of each
chapter. In addition, most of the chapters in this book end with a summary of the
contents presented, as well as some exercises that you can use to verify how well
youhaveunderstoodthem.Solutionstotheexercisesareprovidedattheendofthis
book.
This book is organized into five parts of increasing complexity. First, a general
philosophical introduction to conceptual modelling is provided, to develop a con-
textual feel of the approach and a better understanding of the technical issues that
are described later. Secondly, the basics of conceptual modelling are introduced,
using the ConML (www.conml.org) language as an infrastructure, and employing
examples from everyday life and, as often as possible, cultural heritage. Then,
advanced topics in conceptual modelling are presented, in order to fully cover the
necessary aspects of ConML that will allow the reader to develop and understand
complex conceptual models. After this, a proposed conceptualization of cultural
heritage is presented, using the Cultural Heritage Abstract Reference Model
(CHARM, www.charminfo.org) as a reference, so that conceptual models of cul-
tural heritage can be easily constructed. Finally, various usage scenarios and
applications of cultural heritage modelling are described, giving practical tips on
how to use different techniques to solve real-world problems. You are free to read
only the first few parts if you are only interested in an overview of the topic, or
jump to the last parts if you are already familiar with it. If you are learning about
conceptualmodellinginculturalheritageforthefirsttimeandyouareinterestedin
obtaining a comprehensive view, then I suggest that you read this book cover to
cover.
Finally, I would like to acknowledge the contributions that many people have
madetothematerialspresentedinthisbook.Mostspecially,theConMLmodelling
languagehasbenefitedfromtheinputofCharlotteHugandPatriciaMartín-Rodilla.
PartsofChap.19havebeenco-writtenwithCésarParcero-Oubiña,andhisinput,as
well as David Barreiro’s, has been crucial to the whole chapter. The definitions of
culture, cultural heritage, cultural value and heritage value that are discussed in
Part IV have been refined from the results of a series of internal workshops at
Incipit CSIC (www.incipit.csic.es), with contributions by Ana Ruiz-Blanch, A.
César González-García, César Parcero-Oubiña, Cristina Sánchez-Carretero, David
Barreiro, Felipe Criado-Boado, Joan Roura-Expósito, Juan Castro-Cal, Patricia
Martín-RodillaandRuthVarela.Inturn,theinitialversionoftheCulturalHeritage
Abstract Reference Model (CHARM) was developed by a core team led by the
author plus Alejandro Güimil-Fariña, Camila Gianotti, César Parcero-Oubiña,
Charlotte Hug, Patricia Martín-Rodilla, Pastor Fábrega-Álvarez and Rebeca
Blanco-Rotea, with additional input from Cristina Mato-Fresán, Lucía Meijueiro
and Rocío Varela-Pousa. The whole manuscript was revised by Isabel Cobas.
In addition, my co-workers at Incipit CSIC have been courageous enough as to
not only accept a stranger between them, but also provide a challenging and
exciting environmentwheretrulytransdisciplinary research canbecarried out.My
collaborators at the Centro de Investigación en Métodos de Producción Software
(PROS) of the Universitat Politècnica de València, the Centre de Recherche en
Informatique(CRI)oftheUniversitéParis1—Panthéon-Sorbonne,andtheCentre
for Object Technology Applications and Research (COTAR) of the University of
Technology, Sydney, have opened many doors and shaped the results of my
researchverysignificantly.Also,thecommunityaroundtheComputerApplications
and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology (CAA) association and annual confer-
ence has also been an endless source of inspiration and problems waiting to be
solved. The users of ConML and CHARM, including the students of our regular
postgraduate courses at the University of Santiago de Compostela and elsewhere,
have also provided very useful feedback. And, last but not least, the boundless
conversations with my dear Isabel have delivered both uncompromising support
andpowerfulinsightsintotheconceptualmodellingofculturalheritagelikenobody
else’s. Thank you all.
Santiago de Compostela, Spain Cesar Gonzalez-Perez
Contents
Part I Introduction to Conceptual Modelling
1 What Is Conceptual Modelling? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 Premises and Foundations of Conceptual Modelling. . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Premises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Linguistic Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Conceptual Modelling Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
What Are Conceptual Models Made Of? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3 Benefits and Applications of Conceptual Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Exploration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Interoperability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Part II The Basics of Conceptual Modelling
4 Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Objects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Instance Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5 Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Classes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Definition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Invariants and Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Cardinality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Limitations of Classes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Objects as Instances of Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6 Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Data Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Boolean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Text. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Values as Instances of Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7 Enumerated Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Enumerated Types and Enumerated Items . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Hierarchical Enumerated Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
8 Associations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Associations and Semi-Associations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Whole/Part Semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Self-Associations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Links as Instances of Associations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
9 Generalization and Specialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Generalization/Specialization Relationships Between Classes. . . . . . . . 80
Discriminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Generalization and Class Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Abstraction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Generalization and Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
The Is-A Confusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Avoiding Multiple Specialization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Abstract Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Type Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Recap of Part II
Part III Advanced Conceptual Modelling
10 Advanced Enumerated Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Generalization/Specialization Relationships Between
Enumerated Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
11 Advanced Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Sorted Features. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Strong Semi-Associations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Symmetric Self-Associations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Compact Notation for Associations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
12 Advanced Generalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Multiple Generalization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Dominant Generalizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Other Inheritance Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
13 Model Architecture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
14 Vagueness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Ontological and Epistemic Vagueness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Null and Unknown Semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Using Abstract Enumerated Items . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Using Arbitrary Time Resolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Modelling Vagueness Explicitly. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
15 Temporality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Temporal Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Temporal Aspect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Modelling Temporality Without Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
16 Subjectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Theoretical Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Subjective Features. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Subjective Aspect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Modelling Subjectivity Without Aspects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Combining Temporality and Subjectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
17 Feature Redefinition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Redefinition of Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Redefinition Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
All Feature Kinds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Semi-Associations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
18 Metainformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Metainformation as Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Specific Uses of Metainformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Expressing Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Implementing Transaction Time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Recap of Part III
Part IV A Model of Cultural Heritage
19 An Ontology for Cultural Heritage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
What Is CHARM? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Motivation and Benefits of CHARM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Objections to CHARM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Approaches to Cultural Heritage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Cultural Heritage as a Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Cultural Heritage as Things. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Infrastructural Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
The Basic Concepts of CHARM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
20 Overview of CHARM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Top View of CHARM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
21 CHARM General Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
22 Tangible Entities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Places . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Material Entities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Structure Entities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Object Entities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Stratigraphic Entities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Example Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
23 Agents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Expressing Points of View with Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Example Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
24 Manifestations and Performative Entities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Performative Entities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Expressive Designs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Social Acts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Understandings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Manifestations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Manifestations of Expressive Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Manifestations of Social Acts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Manifestations of Understandings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Example Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
25 Occurrences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Absolute Occurrences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269