Indoor environment and energy efficiency in schools. Part 1, Principles

129 Pages·2010·2.271 MB·English

by  Federation of European Heating and Airconditioning Associations., Francesca R d'Ambrosio Alfano, Laura Bellia

REHVA
Indoor Environment
and Energy Efficiency
in Schools
Part 1 Principles
Francesca R. d’Ambrosio Alfano (ed.)
Laura Bellia
Atze Boerstra
Froukje van Dijken
Elvira Ianniello
Gino Lopardo
Francesco Minichiello
Piercarlo Romagnoni
Manuel Carlos Gameiro da Silva
DISCLAIMER

This Guidebook is the result of the REHVA volunteers. It has been written with care,
using the best available information and the soundest judgment possible. REHVA and the
REHVA volunteers, who contributed to this Guidebook, make no representation or
warranty, express or implied, concerning the completeness, accuracy, or applicability of
the information contained in the Guidebook. No liability of any kind shall be assumed by
REHVA or the authors of this Guidebook as a result of reliance on any information
contained in this document. The user shall assume the entire risk of the use of any and all
information in this Guidebook.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Copyright © 2010 by REHVA,
Federation of European Heating, Ventilation and Air–conditioning Associations

All rights reserved
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronically or mechanical, including photocopy recording, or any information
storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Requests for permission to make copies of any part of the work should be addressed to
REHVA Office, 40 Rue Washington, 1050 Brussels – Belgium
e-mail: [email protected]

ISBN 978-2-930521-03-9

Printed in Turkey by Özgün Offset
ii
Member countries of REHVA
Belgium Hungary Russia
Bosnia Ireland Serbia
Bulgaria Italy Slovakia
Croatia Latvia Slovenia
Czech Republic Lithuania Spain
Denmark The Netherlands Sweden
Estonia Norway Switzerland
Finland Poland Turkey
France Portugal United Kingdom
Germany Romania
Working group
This book is developed with a working group consisting of the following experts:
• Laura Bellia, Professor, University of Napoli Federico II, Italy
• Atze Boerstra, Consultant, BBA Indoor Environmental Consultancy, The Netherlands
• Francesca R. d’Ambrosio Alfano, Professor, University of Salerno, Italy
• Manuel Carlos Gameiro da Silva, Professor, University of Coimbra, Portugal
• Elvira Ianniello, PhD, University of Salerno, Italy
• Jarek Kurnitski, Adjunct Professor, D.Sc., Sitra, Finnish Innovation Fund, Finland
• Gino Lopardo, PhD student, University of Salerno, Italy
• Francesco Minichiello, Professor, University of Napoli Federico II, Italy
• Jari Palonen, Technical University of Technology, Helsinki, Finland
• Piercarlo Romagnoni, Professor, University IUAV Venezia, Italy
• Dennis Schuiling, Consultant, Royal BAM Group, BAM techniek, The Netherlands
• Froukje van Dijken, Consultant, BBA Indoor Environmental Consultancy, The Netherlands
Reviewers
The following experts have reviewed the book and made valuable suggestions for
improvements.
• Derrick Braham, Consult, UK
• Dusan Petras, Professor, Slovakia
• Peter Stankov, Professor, Bulgaria
vi
Member countries of REHVA
Belgium Hungary Russia
Bosnia Ireland Serbia
Bulgaria Italy Slovakia
Croatia Latvia Slovenia
Czech Republic Lithuania Spain
Denmark The Netherlands Sweden
Estonia Norway Switzerland
Finland Poland Turkey
France Portugal United Kingdom
Germany Romania
Working group
This book is developed with a working group consisting of the following experts:
• Laura Bellia, Professor, University of Napoli Federico II, Italy
• Atze Boerstra, Consultant, BBA Indoor Environmental Consultancy, The Netherlands
• Francesca R. d’Ambrosio Alfano, Professor, University of Salerno, Italy
• Manuel Carlos Gameiro da Silva, Professor, University of Coimbra, Portugal
• Elvira Ianniello, PhD, University of Salerno, Italy
• Jarek Kurnitski, Adjunct Professor, D.Sc., Sitra, Finnish Innovation Fund, Finland
• Gino Lopardo, PhD student, University of Salerno, Italy
• Francesco Minichiello, Professor, University of Napoli Federico II, Italy
• Jari Palonen, Technical University of Technology, Helsinki, Finland
• Piercarlo Romagnoni, Professor, University IUAV Venezia, Italy
• Dennis Schuiling, Consultant, Royal BAM Group, BAM techniek, The Netherlands
• Froukje van Dijken, Consultant, BBA Indoor Environmental Consultancy, The Netherlands
Reviewers
The following experts have reviewed the book and made valuable suggestions for
improvements.
• Derrick Braham, Consult, UK
• Dusan Petras, Professor, Slovakia
• Peter Stankov, Professor, Bulgaria
vi
Member countries of REHVA
Belgium Hungary Russia
Bosnia Ireland Serbia
Bulgaria Italy Slovakia
Croatia Latvia Slovenia
Czech Republic Lithuania Spain
Denmark The Netherlands Sweden
Estonia Norway Switzerland
Finland Poland Turkey
France Portugal United Kingdom
Germany Romania
Working group
This book is developed with a working group consisting of the following experts:
• Laura Bellia, Professor, University of Napoli Federico II, Italy
• Atze Boerstra, Consultant, BBA Indoor Environmental Consultancy, The Netherlands
• Francesca R. d’Ambrosio Alfano, Professor, University of Salerno, Italy
• Manuel Carlos Gameiro da Silva, Professor, University of Coimbra, Portugal
• Elvira Ianniello, PhD, University of Salerno, Italy
• Jarek Kurnitski, Adjunct Professor, D.Sc., Sitra, Finnish Innovation Fund, Finland
• Gino Lopardo, PhD student, University of Salerno, Italy
• Francesco Minichiello, Professor, University of Napoli Federico II, Italy
• Jari Palonen, Technical University of Technology, Helsinki, Finland
• Piercarlo Romagnoni, Professor, University IUAV Venezia, Italy
• Dennis Schuiling, Consultant, Royal BAM Group, BAM techniek, The Netherlands
• Froukje van Dijken, Consultant, BBA Indoor Environmental Consultancy, The Netherlands
Reviewers
The following experts have reviewed the book and made valuable suggestions for
improvements.
• Derrick Braham, Consult, UK
• Dusan Petras, Professor, Slovakia
• Peter Stankov, Professor, Bulgaria
vi
REHVA –
Federation of European Heating, Ventilation and Air–Conditioning Associations
REHVA, now almost 50 years old, is an would have a good long term return of in-
organization of European professionals in vestment due to improved learning results
the field of building services (heating, and lower health care expenses.
ventilation and air-conditioning). REHVA
represents more than 100 000 experts from This guidebook gives a sound background
29 European countries. on the basics of the human requirements
with respect to indoor environmental con-
REHVA’s main activity is to develop and ditions for the design and operation of
disseminate economical, energy efficient schools for the optimal performance of the
and healthy technology for the mechanical students. The book also describes the prin-
services of buildings. The work is super- ciples of good HVAC systems for schools.
vised by the Board of Directors. REHVA It focuses particularly on energy efficient
Guidebook projects are coordinated by the systems for a healthy indoor environment.
Technology and Research Committee of The book gives also practical guidance for
REHVA. selection, installation and operation of
HVAC systems. With case studies from
Several task forces are currently working different climatic conditions it illustrates
on REHVA Guidebooks such as: Indoor how the renovation can impact on energy
environment in museums, Indoor envi- performance and indoor environment of
ronmental investigations, New air distri- school buildings.
bution systems, Radiant heating, Low
energy cooling and many others. This guidebook is a project of several
member countries of REHVA. The work
School buildings are very important for has been coordinated by REHVA´s Italian
society. The number of children in schools member AICARR.
in REHVA countries throughout Europe is
more than 100 million, a considerable part The REHVA Board would like to express
of population. School buildings also repre- its sincere gratitude to AICARR and the
sent a significant part of the building stock, working group for their invaluable work.
and also a noteworthy part of the total en- REHVA would also like to express its
ergy use. Unfortunately studies in many gratitude to the universities, institutions
countries have shown numerous shortcom- and companies that supported the work
ings in the indoor environment of schools. by allowing and encouraging their experts
Actually, children in schools are more sen- to participate in the production of this
sitive to environmental exposure than guidebook.
adults. Society should do more to protect
them from harmful exposure in schools. All
students and employees in schools have the Olli Seppänen
right to a healthy indoor environment. In- Secretary General of REHVA
vestment in the quality of school buildings
v
List of contents
1 ENVIRONMENTAL COMFORT AND ENERGY SUSTAINABILITY..........1
1.1 Introduction....................................................................................................1
1.2 EU attention to energy saving in residential buildings....................................1
2 INDOOR ENVIRONMENTAL COMFORT ASPECTS.....................................4
2.1 The Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ).......................................................4
2.2 The importance of a good IEQ in schools.......................................................6
2.3 Thermal comfort.............................................................................................9
2.4 Indoor Air Quality........................................................................................18
2.5 Acoustic comfort..........................................................................................33
2.6 Visual comfort..............................................................................................39
3 ENERGY SAVING AND GLOBAL COMFORT..............................................53
3.1 Introduction..................................................................................................53
3.2 Impact of energy saving choices on global comfort......................................53
3.3 The Standard EN 15251...............................................................................54
4 HVAC SYSTEMS................................................................................................62
4.1 General considerations and typical school areas...........................................62
4.2 Design criteria..............................................................................................63
4.3 Thermal loads...............................................................................................67
4.4 HVAC equipment and systems in school buildings: typologies and
selection criteria...........................................................................................68
4.5 HVAC equipment and systems in new school buildings...............................73
4.6 HVAC systems in existing school buildings: typologies and retrofit criteria79
4.7 Dehumidification problems at summer part load conditions.........................79
4.8 Automatic control system and energy conservation criteria for
HVAC systems in school buildings..............................................................80
iii
4.9 Central heating/cooling stations.......................................................................82
4.10 Maintenance.................................................................................................83
5 ENERGY CONSUMPTION................................................................................85
5.1 Introduction..................................................................................................85
5.2 Energy consumption assessment methodologies for new buildings..............86
5.3 Energy consumptions and energy assessment benchmarking methodologies
for existing buildings....................................................................................90
5.4 Primary energy evaluation............................................................................93
5.5 Energy considerations about schools............................................................94
6 CASE STUDIES...................................................................................................97
Case I – The assessment of IEQ of an Italian school....................................................................97
Case II – A renovated school building with natural air supply and mechanical exhaust...........103
Case III – A renovated classroom with a displacement ventilation system................................108
Case IV – Poikkilaakso School Helsinki, Finland......................................................................113
7 REFERENCES...................................................................................................118

iv
1 ENVIRONMENTAL COMFORT AND
ENERGY SUSTAINABILITY
1.1 Introduction past, in order to meet requirements of
safety, energy saving, maintainability,
Building construction and renovation de- sustainability and occupants comfort.
sign is assuming a more and more human
oriented philosophy in the last years. Anyway, design is not the only aspect to
Building materials, systems and compo- be taken into consideration, because the
nents become more and more advanced operation of the building and the conduc-
and sophisticated in order to meet this tion and maintenance of systems are as
change. This happens because of changing important as the design phase. In fact en-
needs of people with respect to the indoor ergy efficiency and comfort are strictly
environment, where they spend the most related to how the building and its devices
part of the day and that should be as com- are used. For example, even if a poten-
fortable as possible, in terms of indoor tially very efficient system is designed and
environmental quality, IEQ, which is a realized, bad use or maintenance could
measure of the whole of thermal, visual, cause unforeseen energy losses.
acoustic comfort and acceptable indoor air
quality conditions in an environment. An integrated approach in the design of
school buildings and systems is required
It is clear that safety is the most important to meet all mentioned needs, because a
aspect in building construction/renovation high number of variables and their rela-
design, but it should be always kept in tionships, in many cases very complex
mind that the final aim of designers is to ones, have to be considered (d’Ambrosio
let people stay healthy in the indoor envi- Alfano et al., 2006).
ronment they construct.
1.2 EU attention to energy saving
An important factor, that should not be in residential buildings
neglected, is the growing consciousness
of researchers concerning the effects of a The Directive 2002/91/EC of the Euro-
poor indoor environment on people. Fo- pean Parliament and of the Council on 16
cusing only on unhealthy diseases, let us December 2002 on the energy perform-
think of the loss of concentration in noisy ance of buildings raises some fundamen-
environments or of the effects on per- tal questions connected with the increas-
formance and productivity due to poor ing requirement of energy, and of the
indoor air quality. energy crises during the last few years.
Design, techniques, materials rules and One of the most relevant aspects stated in
standards are developing in this sense, so, the Directive introduction, is the fact that
when a new building is designed, or an the residential and tertiary sectors, the
existing one is renovated, more aspects major part of which are buildings, ac-
have to be considered with respect to the counts for more than 40% of final energy
1
REHVA Indoor Environment and Energy Efficiency in Schools Guidebook – Part 1
consumption in the Community and is Member States are required to get equipped
expanding, a trend which is bound to in- with calculation methodologies of energy
crease its energy consumption and hence performance of buildings for design and
also its carbon dioxide emissions (Euro- verification of minimum performance re-
pean Union, 2002). That is why the Euro- quirements. Methodologies must be estab-
pean Community considered it necessary lished on a national or regional scale.
to call to the attention of Member States
the fact that demand management of en- All new buildings must satisfy minimal
ergy is an important tool enable the Com- performance standards; furthermore all
munity to influence the global energy mar- existing buildings, having a useful area
ket and hence the security of energy supply over 1000 m² and subject to major reno-
in the medium and long term (European vation, should be refurbished so that the
Union, 2002). minimum requirements are satisfied.
The Directive 2002/91/EC objective is to An important aspect, often remarked in
promote the improvement of the energy the Directive text, concerns the influence
performance of buildings within the that such choices concerning energy sav-
Community, taking into account outdoor ing can have upon environmental quality
climatic and local conditions, as well as of buildings. At point 8 of introductive
indoor climate requirements and cost considerations, it can be read that systems
effectiveness. should be designed in such a way that the
amount of energy required in use will be
The Directive lays down requirements low, having regard to the climatic condi-
concerning: tions of the location and the occupants
(European Union, 2002).
• general framework for a methodology
of calculation of the integrated energy In other parts of the Directive text refer-
performance of buildings; ences to people comfort, in particular, at
• application of minimum requirements point (16): Public activity buildings and
on the energy performance of new buildings frequently visited by public
buildings; should set an example by taking environ-
• application of minimum requirements mental and energy considerations into ac-
on the energy performance of large count….Moreover the displaying of offi-
existing buildings that are subject to cially recommended temperatures, together
major renovation; with the actual measured temperature,
• energy certification of buildings; should discourage the misuse of heating,
• regular inspection of boilers and of air conditioning and ventilation systems.
air conditioning systems in buildings This should contribute to avoiding unneces-
and, in addition, an assessment of the sary use of energy and of safeguarding
heating installation condition in comfortable indoor climatic conditions
which the boilers are more than (thermal comfort) in relation to the outside
fifteen years old. temperature (European Union, 2002).

2