Impact of Soil Fertility Replenishment Agroforestry Technology Adoption on the Livelihoods and ...

22 Pages·2012·0.36 MB·English

3
Impact of Soil Fertility Replenishment
Agroforestry Technology Adoption on the
Livelihoods and Food Security of Smallholder
Farmers in Central and Southern Malawi
Paxie W. Chirwa1 and Ann F. Quinion2
1University of Pretoria, Faculty of Natural & Agricultural Sciences
245 Hanby Ave Westerville
1South Africa,
2USA
1. Introduction
The expanding information on agroforestry research and development around the globe
shows that agroforestry is being promoted and implemented as a means to improve
agricultural production for smallholder farmers with limited labor, financial, and land
capital (Ajayi et al., 2007). In Africa, and particularly southern Africa, the main constraint to
agricultural productivity is soil nutrient deficiency (Scoones & Toulmin, 1999; Sanchez et al.,
1997). For this reason, agroforestry research in the region has focused on soil fertility
replenishment (SFR) technologies over the years and the adoption and scaling-up of these
practices is the main thrust of the ongoing on farm research (Akinnifesi et al., 2008;
Akinnifesi et al, 2010). SFR encompasses a range of agroforestry practices aimed at
increasing crop productivity through growing trees (usually nitrogen-fixing), popularized
as fertilizer tree systems, directly on agricultural land. Fertiliser tree systems involve soil
fertility replenishment through on-farm management of nitrogen-fixing trees (Akinnifesi et
al 2010; Mafongoya et al., 2006). Fertiliser tree systems capitalise on biological N fixation by
legumes to capture atmospheric N and make it available to crops. Most importantly, is the
growing of trees in intimate association with crops in space or time to benefit from
complementarity of resource use (Akinnifesi et al., 2010; Gathumbi et al., 2002). The
different fertiliser tree systems that have been developed and promoted in southern Africa
(see Akinnifesi et al, 2008; 2010) over the last two decades are briefly discussed below. The
type of soil fertility replenishment (SFR) or fertilizer tree system appropriate for a particular
setting is determined by a battery of ecological and social factors.
1.1 Intercropping
Intercropping is the simultaneous cultivation of two or more crops on the same field;
usually, involving maize as the main crop in southern Africa and other agronomic crops as
risk crops. In agroforestry based intercropping systems, species such as pigeon pea (Cajanus
cajan), Tephrosia vogelii, Faidherbia albida, Leucaena leucocephala, and Gliricidia sepium are
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54 Crop Production Technologies
prominent. Gliricidia is a coppicing legume native to Central America with a foliage nitrogen
content of up to 4% (Kwesiga et al., 2003). It is currently being used in the intercropping
technologies throughout southern Africa (Böhringer, 2001; Chirwa et al. 2003). In the
intercropping system, Gliricidia is planted along with the maize crop. The trees are pruned at
crop planting and again at first weeding and the pruned biomass is incorporated into the
soil. The advantage of this system is that, because of its coppicing ability, the trees can be
maintained for 15 to 20 years (Akinnifesi et al., 2007), eliminating the need to plant each
year, as is the case in the relay cropping system. However, it takes 2 to 3 seasons of
intercropping before there is a significant positive response in maize yield (Böhringer, 2001;
Chirwa et al., 2003) and the technology is labor intensive because of the required pruning
(Kwesiga et al., 2003).
The benefits of intercropping on maize yields have proved to be highly substantial.
Akinnifesi et al. (2006) reported soil fertility levels in Gliricidia/maize systems to be
significantly greater than sole maize. In the second cropping season, maize yields in the
intercropping plots were twice that of sole maize plots. Additionally, maize yields in the
intercropping systems maintained an average of 3.8 MT ha-¹ over a ten year period,
compared to an average 1.2 MT ha-¹ in the sole maize plots (Akinnifesi et al., 2006). Results
from Makoka Research Station in southern Malawi showed that by the fourth year, maize
yields in the intercropping system were double those of the controls (sole maize) (Kwesiga
et al., 2003). Table 1, adapted from Kwesiga et al. (2003), illustrates the potential yield
benefits of the intercropping technology.

Recom-
mended
1992-1993 1993-1994 1994-1995 1995-1996 1996-1997
fertilizer
(%)
SM G/M SM G/M SM G/M SM G/M SM G/M
MT ha ◌ֿ ¹
0 2.0 1.60 1.20 2.50 1.10 2.10 1.07 4.72 0.56 3.28
25 3.4 3.10 1.60 3.00 2.20 2.90 3.49 6.34 2.11 4.23
50 4.2 4.00 2.40 3.20 2.40 2.90 4.23 6.70 1.89 4.39
SM=sole maize, G/M= Gliricida/maize intercropping recommended fertilizer rates: 96 kg N and 40 kg
P ha ◌ֿ ¹.
Source: Kwesiga, et al., 2003
Table 1. Maize grain yields from a Gliricidia/maize intercropping system with different
levels of fertilizer from 1992 to 1997 at Makoka, Malawi.
1.2 Relay cropping
Relay cropping is a system whereby nitrogen-fixing trees, shrubs, or legumes such as
Sesbania sesban, Tephrosia vogelii, S. macrantha, Crotalaria spp., or perennial pigeon pea
(Cajanus cajan), are grown as annuals and planted 3 to 5 weeks after the food crop.
Staggering, or relaying, the agroforestry species and crop plantings reduces competition
(Akinnifesi et al., 2007; Kwesiga et al., 2003). The agroforestry species are allowed to grow
and develop beyond the main crop harvest. At the beginning of the, second season they are
felled and the woody stems are collected for use as fuel while the remaining biomass is
incorporated into the soil as green manure. Early reports reviewed by Snapp et al., (1998)

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Impact of Soil Fertility Replenishment Agroforestry Technology Adoption on
the Livelihoods and Food Security of Smallholder Farmers in Central and Southern Malawi 55
indicated that after 10 months of growth, Sesbania produced 30 to 60 kg N ha-¹ and 2 to 3 MT
ha ◌ֿ ¹ of leafy biomass, plus valuable fuelwood from the stems. In southern Malawi, Phiri et
al., (1999) found a significant influence of Sesbania relay cropping on maize yields at various
landscape positions. In another study, tree biomass production averaged 1 to 2.5 MT ha ◌ֿ ¹
for T. vogelii, and 1.8 to 4.0 MT ha ◌ֿ ¹ for S. sesban and a corresponding average maize grain
yield of 2 MT ha ◌ֿ ¹ (Kwesiga et al., 2003). Relay cropping is suitable for areas of high
population density and small farm sizes because it does not require farmers to sacrifice land
to fallow. The drawback of this system is that the trees are felled and must therefore be re-
planted each year. Furthermore, the technology relies on late-season rainfall in order for the
trees to become fully established (Böhringer, 2001).
1.3 Improved fallow
Traditionally, farmers practiced rotational cultivation and allowed agricultural plots to lie in
fallow for several years in order to replenish soil nutrients (Kanyama-Phiri et al., 2000;
Snapp et al., 1998). With increasing populations and decreasing land holdings, many
smallholder farmers can no longer afford to remove land from cultivation. For this reason,
improved fallow technology has emerged as a promising alternative to traditional fallows.
In an improved fallow, fast-growing, nitrogen fixing species such as Sesbania sesban ,
Tephrosia vogelii, Gliricidia sepium, and Leucaena leucocephala are grown for 2 to 3 years in the
fallow plot after which, they are felled. The leaf matter can then be incorporated into the soil
as green manure, and the woody stems can be used for fuel wood or construction materials.
Farmers have also intensified this practice by intercropping during the first year of tree
growth (Böhringer, 2001). Improved fallows are being used extensively in Eastern Zambia
(Ajayi & Kwesiga, 2003; Ajayi et al., 2003) as well as in parts of Malawi, Kenya, Zimbabwe,
and Tanzania (Kwesiga et al., 2003; Place et al., 2003). Improved fallows are perhaps the most
widely adopted SFR practice in southern Africa. Kwesiga et al. (2003) estimated that by 1998
over 14 000 farmers were experimenting with improved fallows in eastern Zambia, and that
by 2006 a total of 400 000 farmers in southern Africa would be using the technology. In trials
at Chipata, Zambia, maize yields increased from 2.0 MT ha◌ ֿ ¹ in an un-fallowed plot to 5.6
MT ha◌ ֿ ¹ after a 2 year S. sesban fallow (Kwesiga et al., 2003). The same study also reported
yield increases of 191% after a 2 year T. vogelii fallow and a 155% yield increase following a 2
year fallow with C. cajan (Kwesiga et al., 2003). Despite the shorter fallow period, compared
to traditional fallows, the success of improved fallow technology depends, in part, on the
farmer’s ability to remove land from crop production for a period of 2 to 3 years. In places
where landholdings are small, fallows may not be a viable option for farmers. Other
constraints include water availability, especially during tree establishment, and pests in the
case of Sesbania (Böhringer, 2001). For this reason, intercropping and relay cropping have
become the dominant SFR practices in central and southern Malawi (Kwesiga et al., 2003;
Thangata & Alavalapati, 2003).
1.4 Biomass transfer
In the biomass transfer technology, green manure is mulched and/or incorporated into
agricultural soils. Biomass transfer is common in Zimbabwe, Tanzania, western Kenya, and
northern Zambia where green biomass is grown in dambos (shallow, seasonally waterlogged
wetlands) or on sloping land and areas that are unsuitable for agricultural production and
where labor is not a limiting factor (Kwesiga et al., 2003; Place et al., 2003). The technology is

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56 Crop Production Technologies
labor intensive as the mulch must be collected, transported to the agricultural field, and then
incorporated into the soils. The amount and cost of labor associated with biomass transfer is
the major limiting factor to the technology (Kuntashula et al., 2004). The advantage of this
technology is that it allows for continuous cultivation as the incorporated green manure
provides sustained soil nutrient replenishment (Place et al., 2003). Typically, Tithonia
diversifolia, Leucaena leucocephala, Senna spectabilis, Gliricidia sepium, and Tephrosia vogelii are
the most prominent species used in biomass transfer systems (Place et al., 2003). The
technology has been reported to increase maize yields by up to 114% (Place et al., 2003). A
compilation of independent studies in Malawi showed that green manures increased maize
yields by 115.8%, when compared to unfertilized maize (Ajayi et al., 2007). Similarly, Ajayi et
al. (2007) reported that incorporating 3.4 MT ha ◌ֿ ¹ of dry weight of Gliricidia manure
produced up to 3 MT ha ◌ֿ ¹ of maize. Aside from the common use in maize production,
biomass transfer is an important technology used in dambo cultivation of high-value cash
crops, such as vegetables (Kwesiga et al., 2003). In addition to soil fertility and increased
crop production, agroforestry provides other ecological and economic products and services
including, but not limited to: wood production, pest management, and carbon
sequestration.
1.5 Wood production for construction and energy
One of the most important products of SFR, to the smallholder farmer, is woody biomass
production. Wood, for both fuel and construction, is critical to the livelihoods of rural
farmers. An estimated 85% of the rural population in developing countries depends on
woodlands and forests to sustain their livelihoods (Dixon et al., 2001). As population
pressures and deforestation rates increase, there is an increasing demand for wood, but a
decreasing supply. In Tanzania, for example, deforestation rates caused by activities
associated with agriculture, illegal harvesting, and expanding settlements have reached
91 000 ha per year (Meghji, 2003). In Malawi, high population pressures have stressed the
natural resources base, and especially the forest and woodland resources. The country’s
wood demand was evaluated to exceed the available supply by one third (Malawi, 2002;
MEAD, 2002). Additionally, Malawi’s forest cover decreased by 2.5 million ha between 1972
and 1992 and the current rate of deforestation is approximately 2.8% per year (MEAD, 2002).
As a result of these trends, those who rely on wood for fuel, construction, and other
livelihood activities are spending more time collecting and transporting wood to the
detriment of other important household activities. Considering that fertilizer tree systems
have been shown to produce up to 10 MT of woody biomass per hectare (Kwesiga & Coe,
1994), it is easy to see that the secondary benefit of wood production by agroforestry trees is
an important, positive externality to these technologies. Two important species for wood
production include Sesbania sesban and Gliricidia sepium. S. sesban produces a high volume
of woody biomass in a short time, making it ideal for fuelwood production (AFT, 2008). In
eastern Zambia, a Sesbania sesban improved fallow produced over 10 MT ha ◌ֿ ¹ (Kwesiga et
al., 1999). Kwesiga & Coe (1994) reported fuelwood harvests of 15 and 21 MT ha ◌ֿ ¹
following 2 and 3 year Sesbania fallows, respectively. Furthermore, Franzel et al. (2002)
reported that a 2-year Sesbania fallow resulted in 15 MT of fuelwood. The woody biomass
of Gliricidia sepium is suitable for both fuel and construction. As fuel, the wood of G.
sepium burns slowly and with little smoke. Alternatively, the hard, durable wood is
termite resistant and is used in fence, home, and tool construction (AFT, 2008). Chirwa et

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Impact of Soil Fertility Replenishment Agroforestry Technology Adoption on
the Livelihoods and Food Security of Smallholder Farmers in Central and Southern Malawi 57
al., (2003) reported that G. sepium, when grown in an unpruned woodlot, or as an
improved fallow, produced 22 MT ha ◌ֿ ¹ yr ◌ֿ ¹ of fuelwood. The same study reported
fuelwood production amounts of 1 MT ha ◌ֿ ¹ after a 2 year Gliricida/maize intercrop and
3.3 and 5.0 MT ha ◌ֿ ¹ after 3 years of Gliricida/maize/pigeon pea and Gliricidia/maize
intercrop, respectively (Chirwa et al., 2003). A 5 year Gliricidia rotational woodlot in
Tanzania was found to produce over 30 MT of woody biomass (Kimaro et al., 2007).
Faidherbia albida and Leucaena leucocephala are two other SFR species planted in the
southern Africa region that are managed for the dual purpose of soil fertility and woody
biomass production (AFT, 2008).
1.6 Environmental services
1.6.1 Pest management
Another added benefit to some SFR agroforestry species is a pest management quality.
Striga (S. asiatica and S. hermonthica) is a parasitic plant that thrives in nutrient starved soils
(Ajayi et al., 2007; Berner et al., 1995; Gacheru & Rao, 2001; Sileshi et al., 2008). It attacks
several of the major food crops, including maize, millet, rice, and sorghum. Seedlings attach
to the roots of the host plant where they continue to grow underground for four to seven
weeks; it is during this period that they cause the most damage (Berner et al.¸ 1995). A single
Striga plant can produce over 50 000 seeds and these seeds can remain viable in the soil for
10 to 14 years (Berner et al., 1995; Gacheru & Rao, 2001). Yield losses of 32% to 50% and 18%
to 42% from Striga infestations have been reported in on-station trials in Kenya and
Tanzania, respectively (Massawe et al., 2001). For smallholder, subsistence farmers, losses
can be up to 100% with heavy infestation (Berner et al., 1995; Gacheru & Rao, 2001; Massawe
et al., 2001).
High populations have necessitated the use of continuous cultivation. This leads to soil
nutrient depletion and has caused an increase in the severity and spread of Striga
infestations (Gacheru & Rao, 2001). Several agroforestry species have shown potential in
combating Striga. For example, on moderately-infested sites in western Kenya, Desmodium
distortum, Sesbania sesban, Sesbania cinerascuns, Crotalaria grahamiana, and Tephrosia vogelii
fallows were found to decrease Striga by 40% to 72% and increase maize yields by 224% to
316% when compared to continuous maize plots (Gacheru & Rao, 2005). Additionally,
Kwesiga et al. (1999) found less than 6 Striga plants 100 m ◌ֿ ² following 3 year Sesbania fallows
in two experiments from Zambia. This is in stark contrast to the 1532 and 195 Striga plants
100 m ◌ֿ ² found in two experiments of continuously cultivated and unfertilized maize
(Kwesiga et al., 1999).
Tephrosia vogelii has also been found to be effective as both a repellant and insecticide against
Callosobruchus maculates, the main pest infecting stored cowpea. In a laboratory study
conducted by Boeke et al. (2004), beetles exposed to tubes treated with T. vogelii powder laid
fewer eggs in the first 24 hour period than beetles in the control. The T. vogelii powder was
also found to reduce the parent beetle lifespan (Boeke et al., 2004). Another study reported
that the juice of T. vogelii was effective in managing maize stem borer (Chilo partellus)
populations in southern Tanzania and northern Zambia (Abate et al., 2000). Similarly, in
Uganda, the presence of T. vogelii plants in sweet potato fields was reported to protect the
potatoes from mole and rat damage (Abate et al., 2000). The dry, crushed Tephrosia vogelii
leaves are also documented to be effective against lice, fleas, tics, and as a molluscicide
(AFT, 2008).

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58 Crop Production Technologies
1.6.2 Carbon sequestration
The Kyoto Protocol recognizes agroforestry as a greenhouse gas mitigation strategy and
allows industrialized nations to purchase carbon credits from developing countries
(Orlando et al., 2002). In this context, agroforestry not only plays a part in mitigating the
effects of global climate change through carbon sequestration (Ajayi et al., 2007; Ajayi &
Matakala, 2006), but also has the potential to contribute to farmer incomes through the sale
of carbon credits (Takimoto et al., 2008). Several initiatives have recently been developed to
support and encourage farmers who adopt land use practices that render environmental
services (Ajayi et al., 2007). While there is increasing interest in the global warming
mitigation potential of agroforestry, research has lagged behind in quantifying this potential
for various systems (Albrecht & Kandji, 2003; Makumba et al., 2007). While the volume of
research on agroforestry and climate regulation is limited, there have been a few studies that
reveal the carbon sequestration potential for some systems. For example, a Gliricidia/maize
intercropping system in Malawi was found to sequester between 123 and 149 MT of C ha ◌ֿ ¹
in the first 0 to 200 cm of soil through a combination of root turnover and pruning
application (Ajayi et al., 2007; Makumba et al., 2007). In a separate report, Montagnini & Nair
(2004) estimated that the potential carbon sequestration for smallholder agroforestry
systems in the tropics range from 1.5 to 3.5 MT ha ◌ֿ ¹ of C yr ◌ֿ ¹. Albrecht & Kandji (2003) have
calculated the carbon sequestration potential to be between 12 and 228 MT ha ◌ֿ ¹ for similar
systems. Between fuel and pole wood production, pesticide qualities, and climate
regulation, it is clear that agroforestry offers benefits beyond improved soil characteristics
and crop yields. Table 2, adapted from Ajayi et al. (2007), highlights some of the private and
social benefits of SFR technologies.

Private Social
Yield increase Carbon sequestration
Stakes for tobacco curing Suppresses noxious weeds
Improved soil structure, reduced
Improved fuel wood availability
erosion and run-off
Fodder Promotes biodiversity
Potential for community income
Benefit Bio-pesticide
diversity
Suppresses weeds
Improved soil structure, reduced

erosion and run-off
Diversification of farm production

(cash crops)
Source: Adapted from Ajayi, et al., (2007)
Table 2. Benefits of SFR Technologies
2. Case study of SFR technology in central and southern Malawi
There are a variety of agroforestry technology options that are being researched, tested, and
adopted throughout the world. The type of SFR technology that is acceptable, appropriate,
and sustainable to a particular setting is determined by a battery of ecological (climate, soil
and terrain characteristics) and societal factors such as available land and labor and

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Impact of Soil Fertility Replenishment Agroforestry Technology Adoption on
the Livelihoods and Food Security of Smallholder Farmers in Central and Southern Malawi 59
institutional support and regulations. As a result of the various ecological and social
boundaries in the study area, the respondents in this study used a combination of one or
more of the following SFR technologies: intercropping, relay cropping, improved fallow,
and biomass transfer. This case study’s main objective was to investigate the link between
SFR adoption and poverty reduction in farming households of central and southern Malawi
by assessing food security, asset status, and household activities and income. Specific
objectives were as follows: (i) evaluate changes in food security resulting from increased
yields associated with SFR adoption; (ii) determine if there is a cause-and-effect relationship
between SFR adoption and household assets as an indication of improved wealth and (iii)
determine if SFR adoption has allowed households to diversify their activities and income.
2.1 Study areas
Forty-eight percent of the land area in Malawi is under cultivation. However, only 32% of
this is classified as suitable land for rain fed agriculture (Malawi, 2002). Agricultural land
increased from 3 million ha to 4.5 million ha between 1976 and 1990 while the average land
holding size decreased from 1.53 ha in 1968/1969 to 0.8 ha in 2000 (Malawi, 2002). In order
to achieve its various goals and objectives, the Ministry of Agriculture established a
National Rural Development Programme that divides the country into various management
units. There are eight Agricultural Development Divisions (ADD) within the country and
each ADD is divided into several Rural Development Project (RDP) areas. The RDPs are
further divided into Extension Planning Areas (EPA) and then finally into smaller Sections.
The study was conducted in Rural Development Programmes in two districts of Malawi,
Kasungu (S 13°2’0”, E 33°29’0”) in the central region and Machinga (S14° 58’ 00”, E35° 31’
00”) in the southern region (Fig 1a). Within the Kasungu RDP the Chipala EPA was chosen
and interviews were carried out in three different Sections. In Machinga ADD, interviews
were conducted in Mikhole Section within Nanyumba EPA (Figure 1b).
2.1.1 Farming activities and food production
The primary source of food in Kasungu is from local crop production, with availability
being lowest between January and February. Apart from tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) the
cash crop, maize (Zea mays) is the most important food crop and is cultivated by an
estimated 95.9% of the population of Kasungu District (Malawi National Statistical Office,
2005). Groundnuts (Arachis hypogaea), rice (Oryza sativa), pulses and, to a lesser extent
cassava (Manihot esculenta) are also important crops with 55.3%, 48%, 41% and 12.3% of the
population cultivating these crops respectively (Malawi National Statistical Office, 2005). In
Machinga, most households are subsistence farmers whose main crops are maize, cassava,
and rice (MVAC, 2005). Almost 98% of households in Machinga cultivate maize, 67.7% grow
pulses, 38.6% grow groundnuts, 42.1% cultivate rice, and 26.6% cultivate cassava (Malawi
National Statistical Office, 2005). Traditionally, households engage in a multiple cropping of
maize/pulse farming system (Msuku et al., s.d.). Relay planting, the inclusion of N-fixing
legumes, and incorporation of crop residues into the soil are common soil fertility
management practices (Msuku et al., s.d.). Most farmers cannot afford inorganic fertilizers:
consequently, only about 20% of households use fertilizers, pesticides, or improved seed
(Msuku et al., s.d.). While most plots are intercropped, tobacco is grown in pure stands
(Msuku et al., s.d.). Tobacco is an important cash crop for those who cultivate it, but it is
grown by only about 22% of the population (Malawi National Statistical Office, 2005).

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Fig. 1.a. Map of location of Kasungu and Machinga Agricultural Development Division

Study Sites
Kasungu ADD Machinga ADD
Chipala EPA Nanyumbu EPA
West Section Mikhole Section
East Section
Khuza East Section

Fig. 1.b. Detailed subsection of the study sites

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Impact of Soil Fertility Replenishment Agroforestry Technology Adoption on
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2.1.2 Wealth and income
According to the Malawi Baseline Livelihood Profiles (MVAC, 2005), wealth in the Kasungu
region is heavily reliant on access to food and credit. Households with access to credit are
more likely to have a larger land holding from which they can cultivate and harvest a higher
crop yield. These households may also be able to purchase livestock such as cattle which can
be used for meat, milk, farming, or sold for cash in times of stress. Overall, those considered
“better-off” cultivate twice as much land, may own as many as 10 head of cattle, and/or
own twice as many goats and chickens as those considered “poor” (MVAC, 2005). Crop
sales are the primary source of income in the region, with tobacco constituting 65% to 85%
of the average household income (MVAC, 2005). Approximately 64% of the population of
Kasungu District grows tobacco (Malawi National Statistical Office, 2005). It is the most
important cash crop in the region with an estimated 45% of the yearly tobacco sales in the
country coming from Kasungu ADD, and 60% of this comes from Kasungu RDP
(Mwasikakata, 2003). Among the poor, cash and in kind wages from ganyu1 work are the
second most important source of income, while for those households considered to be either
middle or better-off, food crops and livestock sales are the secondary sources of income
(MVAC, 2005). The average landholding size throughout the region is 0.4 ha (Msuku et al.,
s.d.; MVAC, 2005). Households who, according to the Malawi Baseline Livelihood Profiles,
are considered “poor” own between 0.4 ha and 1.0 ha, while for those deemed to be better-
off, land holdings average between 1.2 ha and 2.4 ha (MVAC, 2005). Despite low soil fertility
and market access problems, crop sales are the most important source of income in
Machinga. Crops such as groundnuts (Arachis hypogaea), sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batats), and
soya beans (Glycine max) are sold mainly in the local markets (MVAC, 2005). Other major
income sources include labor and firewood sale. Even after household production and in
kind payments, poor households still face a 33% food deficit. According to the Malawi
Integrated Household Survey of 2005, Machinga District has a 73.7% poverty rate and only
36.7% of the population has an adequate food supply. The sandy soils, poor infrastructure,
and high population density, make poverty relief and hunger alleviation especially
challenging.
2.2 Methodology
The sites, communities, and individual households were selected using purposive sampling
strategies (Babbie and Mouton 2001) based on information provided by the project staff and
local extension officers. In total, 131 household interviews were conducted, 65 from
Kasungu and 66 from Machinga. Farmers were selected on the basis of length of SFR and/or
agroforestry technology use; having been adopters of the fertilizer tree technologies for at
least 5 years.
2.2.1 Data analysis
Household characteristics such as number of household members and landholding size
were summarized using descriptive statistics. Frequency tables and descriptive statistics
were used to identify and evaluate trends in the agroforestry technology use, crop
production, shocks, assets, and income. Sign and Signed Rank Non-parametric (also called

1 Ganyu refers to casual labor or piecework and is paid for with either cash or in kind upon completion
of the job

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62 Crop Production Technologies
Wilcoxon Matched Pairs test) analysis was used to test for a change in the crop yield and
asset variables between pre- and post-adoption (Clewer and Scarisbrick 2006). The test for
equality of proportions was used to examine the probability of an increase in income
amount, number and type of income sources, and maize yields as a result of the
technologies adoption. Chi-square analysis test was used to determine if there was an
influence of the addition of agroforestry related activities on both the amount and number
of income sources
3. Results and discussion
3.1 The relationship between the adoption of SFR technologies and food security
The majority of respondents (65%) reported an increase in maize yield due to SFR use with
an average total yield increase of 381.5 kg in Kasungu and 241.7 kg in Machinga (Table 3).
The difference between sites was likely due to the fact that respondents in Machinga
cultivate much smaller areas. The results confirm what the existing literature has already
established, that integrated soil fertility technologies do cause a significant increase in crop
production (Ajayi et al., 2007; Akinnifesi et al., 2006; Kwesiga et al., 2003; Phiri et al., 1999).
Some of the studies have even shown increases of over 100% (Ajayi et al., 2007; Phiri et al.
1999; Place et al., 2003) for various agroforestry technologies. However, the respondents only
provided information about the amount of yield increase with no reference to any baseline
information pertaining to yields per hectare and so the reported increases cannot be
extrapolated to kg per hectare; making it difficult to directly compare the production at the
two sites. It should also be mentioned that no data was collected on the use of inorganic
fertilizers among the respondents. At the time of interview, the government fertilizer
subsidy program supplied 100 kg of inorganic fertilizer to approximate 50% of the
smallholder farming sector (Malawi Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security, 2008) and it
is likely that some of the respondents in this study were recipients of these subsidies. The
use of both organic and inorganic fertilizer options are complementary and will contribute
to increasing crop yields.

Crop Kasungu Machinga
Maize* 381.5 (192.4) 241.7 (126)
Cassava* 188.2 (92.75) 50
Vegetables 34.1 (28.60) 17.1 (6.98)
* Indicates that differences between sites are significant at p<0.05
Table 3. Mean increases (kg) (and SD) of crops in Kasungu and Machinga districts
The other two crops that also showed significant increases in yield since adoption of SFR
technologies were cassava and vegetables (Table 3). Respondents at both sites grew
vegetables for consumption and sale. However, the sale of vegetables was a much more
common source of income in Kasungu than in Machinga (Table 4). The use of biomass
transfer in dambo (wetlands) cultivation of high value cash crops such as vegetables has
been shown to provide a potential net profit of US$700 to US$1000 per hectare (Ajayi et al.,
2006). Ajayi and Matakala (2006) reported that in Zambia the use of Leucaena biomass in
cabbage cultivation resulted in a net profit of US$5 469 per hectare. It is likely that, when
compared to Machinga, the larger land holdings in Kasungu has allowed the more prevalent

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