Table Of ContentHindustani Music and the Philosophy of Art
S.K.SAXENA
M usichasfor long beenan objectofseriousreflectioninIndia. Quiteafew
attempts have beenmade in the pastto define its basic concepts, such as
raga (melodicmatrix)1andtiila(rhythm), and todetermine therealpur
pose of this art. Even today our talk about music abounds in phenomenological
insightsand aestheticpredicates,someofthemfitto be used even with respectto a
singleswara(ornote). Yetifphilosophybe regardedasaseriousattempttoclarify,
distinguish, andinterlinkthe meaningsofconceptsrelatingto aparticularsubject,
or as phenomenological analysis - or, quite generally, as a resolute attempt to .
thinkevermoreclearly- itwouldbe difficult to say thataphilosophyof contem
porary Hindustani (or north Indian) music flourishes at present. We have no
properlythoughtoutbookon thesubject, andeventhe numberofessayson music
written in the way of philosophical aestheticsisextremelylimited.This partly ex
plains why I have not worded the subject ofthis essay directly as philosophy of
Hindustani music.
I am mindful of the constraints to which this article is subject. Those who
happen toreaditcannotallbeexpectedto be conversantwiththe philosophyofart
asitisbeingdoneinrelationto musicintheWesttoday.SoIhave toputeverything
soclearlythatthelack offoreknowledgemay inhibitunderstandingbutminimally.
Imustalsobearinmindthepragmaticthesisthat"ideasmustbeexpressibleinliving
and behaviouror they are merely verbal"2; for otherwise mywriting on the tradi
tionalIndianconceptionofthe aim ofmusic, whichisfrankly metaphysical,willnot
seemto makeany sense.Aboveall, to interestthe readersofthisjournalIhave to
relate mytreatmentofthesubject,whereverIfairlycan,toourmusic today. Atthe
sametimeIsee itclearlythatourunderstandingofthemusicofIndiastandstogain
inclarityfrom thewaypeopleintheWestarephilosophizingabouttheir music, and
that they too may be expectedto get somestimulusor correctivefrom athoughtful
look at Hindustani music. Inthe present essay, however, I can focus only on the
followingfourconcepts: music's ultimateend,iiliipa,riiga,andtiila.Theyare allof
specialimportance becausetheyrelateto Indianmusicas awhole. Otherconcepts
and'problems which may be expected to receive some incidental attention are:
musicand metaphysics; thepureandtheprofoundin music;musicand expression;
.form asorganic,living; andthe(alleged) uniquenessoftimein music.
I.Music's Metaphysical Aim
Metaphysics has been understood variously; and the word 'metaphysical' too
Sang~tNataleNos. 105-106 :July-December 1992
4 S.K. SAXENA
admits of different meanings, one ofthese being 'relating to the supernatural or
supersensible realities'. It is in this sense that the aim of music is metaphysical
according to the ancient Indian view. Music, we are told, is not a matterof mere
entertainment, but essentially a way to spiritual emancipatiorr'- 'an experience
thatissaidto relateto the innermostdepthsofourbeing, andnot tothesenses that
provide oureverydayexperience. Now this isbound to repel the majorityof con
temporaryphilosophersofart. ButIfinditpossible to pleadfor apatientconsidera
tion - though not of course for the positive acceptance - of this view; and my
argumentsherewouldroughlyrun asunder:
a. If, asadeterminateviewofrealityasawhole,metaphysicsmay besaid to be
inseparablefrom such a no-nonsensesubject as science- I haveherein mind the
view (ofPopperand Einstein)that "totry to purifyscienceofaUmetaphysicsisto
hamperorcrippleit,,4-itwouldbeclearlydogmaticto hold,withoutdue enquiry,
that in its other sense of an earnest concern with supersensible realities,
metaphysicshas nothingto dowith theartofmusicwhichissofreely used inprayer
and worship.
b. Further, itiswidely believedinIndia thatsomeofthesaintswho are now a
partof ourreligious historyin fact realizedtheirspiritualdestinythrough the pur
suit of music. Threeofthesesaintsare Swami Haridas, MeeraBai, andTyagaraja
who iswidelyreveredin southIndiaasaclassical composerof the highestquality.
What is more, I know of a Dhruvapadaf song the text of which opens with the
emphatic declaration that a knowledge of the essence of tone-production comes
only as a sequel to the direction of one's whole life towards the goal of spiritual
liberation;and thenproceedstospeakofthewayinwhichtheprtina (orvitalforce)
.isto be made to pass through thesixpsychic centres (chakras) leading, in the end,
to Iiberation'', '.
But, I hasten to admit, all this does nothing to prove that the relation ofthe
discipline of music to spiritualexaltationis a necessaryone. As for thesaints who
seem to have vindicated the possibilityofsuch a relation, how canwe be surethat
they attained to the endsupremeprimarilybecauseoftheircommitment to music
ratherthan in virtueoftheir own spiritualfineness andfervour? Nor isthe Uncer
taintyremoved by the compositionI have referredto. A religiousorientation may
perhapsbe fairly saidto makefor somesensitivenessto thedeepervaluesofmusic,
such asintrovertivedepth,serenityandsublimity;butiftheendofspiritualfreedom
is to be attained through a kindofyogic7discipline- which iswhat the regulated
progressionofprtina throughthehierarchyofthesixpsychiccentresreallyis--how
doesmusic remainthemajorwayto ourspiritualgoal?
c. But, the traditionalIndianmayrejoin, we have not yetreckonedwith some
importantbutlittleknownfactsaboutthecontentandpracticeofHindustanimusic.
For instance, there are quite a few Dhruvapada songs which are called
tirtidhantitmaka(orofthenatureofworship).Here,alongwith aprayerfultext,the
manner of singing has to be all along inward-looking, and so rather subdued,
withoutofcourseanylossofsweetness;andnoimprovisationisallowed.Thewhole
utterancegives onethe impressionofamusicalsighwellingup from the depths of
HINDUSTANIMUSICANDTHE PHILOSOPHYOFART 5
being,orofincense bornealofton the wingsofdevotion,emitting anauraofpurity
and quiet contemplation. Such songs are remarkable for their kind of beauty;it
spellbindsus, butisyet quiteaustere.Thecontentoffeelinghere isintense,but the
mannerisrestrained,thedifferentnotes appearingasmere accentsofcharm rather
thanasprojectionsoftechnicalself-assurance,andallalikesungwithsuchpoiseand
quiet winsomeness that they lend a grip to attention without any strain on our
apprehending powers.
But here one may protest that it isprimarily the characterof the meaningful
languagethatdeepens,whereitdoes,one'sorientationtowardsGod; that language
cannot be regarded as the essence of music; and that, therefore, the question still
remains openifmusic alone can takeuscloser to ourreligiousgoal. Before,how
ever, more thought is given to this bigquestion, another incidental issue may be
discussedin brief.
II. Of Music as Pure: AJapa
What ispure musicormusic alone? Lovers ofIndianmusicwouldat oncesay:
itisiiliftaBor singingwhicheschews both language and beats organizedasrhythm
cycles ,and whichcan yet be very expressive and generally winsome.Suchaview
ofpurity in art, we may note, isvery differentfrom CliveBell's viewofthe same.
Fornoneoftheappraisalwordsthatarecommonlyusedinrespectofgoodiiliipa
say,'deep', 'dignified', and 'serene'- isintelligibleexcept inthe lightofour adult
experienceoflife,which ispreciselythereasonwhyiiliipadoesnotgenerallyappeal
totheveryyoung. Norwould itbecorrecttosaythatiiliipais'pure'inthesensethat
whatitexpresses- sadnessor joy perhaps- isutterly,different fromwhatorhow
suchemotionsfeelinreallife,forifthesingerstraightawaysetsouttosingasadriiga
(or melody-typel'')at a nimble pace, theprocedure would strike the knowledge
ableasimproperforthesimple reasonthatsadnessin realliferecalcitrates alacrity.
ThetypicallyIndiananswertothequestionhowexactlyiiliipais'pure'wouldbethat
just asmilkispurewhenitisnot adulteratedwithwaterll,soismusic'pure'when
itisfreefrom admixtureWithwhatisnotreallyessential tothisart, thatis,language
and beat-measuredrhythm (or tiila). Manywouldreact at thispoint withdisbelief,
.and the feeling islikely to mountifthey are told that suchpurity isattainableeven
insinging;but what we calliiliipa (of the Dhruvapadamanner, I repeat) isaclear
vindication of this possibility.
Here,however,quiteafewpointscallforsomeexplanation.Whatexactlyisthe
essence of music, that is, that basic material without which no music (as art) is
possible? Now, taking all forms of classicalIndian musicinto account, myanswer
would be that the material we seek is some specific tones (or swaras) and tonal
passages, both regulatedinrespectoftheirdurationandmannerofmovement.The
regulationoftime,I must add, may bedoneobjectively- that is,withthe helpof
beats whichthe rasika (orknowledgeable listener)can easilymark, and the inter
vallieorderof which cannotbe wantonlydisregarded'<; or subjectively, that is,by
themusicianhimselfinaccordancewithhisownassessmentofthedemandsofgood
si?ging. It is common knowledge that our everyday talk can be quite ex~ressive
WIthoutbeing determinedbyanyset temporalarrangement.Sothe suggestIOnthat
6 S.K.SAXENA
ci/apa-singingcan be-expressivewithoutadheringto anypre-fixed rhythm neednot
surprise us. .
All thisshould become cleareraswetumto dwellalittle longer on the nature
andsignificanceofalapa:Theaestheticresourcesofalapa(assung), Irepeat,donot
include a pre-fixed and concurrent rhythml3. Nor do they cover language asor
dinarily understood. The materials of alapa are only the following: tones, tonal
passages, andsomealphabetsoftheHindi languagewhichmaywellbeusedinrapid
succession, but are never so put together as to make a (meaningful) word. Sowe
wouldbebiasedifwebelievedthatonlyinstrumentalmusiccouldbe'pure'.Itistrue
that in the past aSanskrit text, havingaclearlyreligious meaning, wasregarded as
the non-aestheticmaterialofalapa;but incurrentpracticenobodycaresabout that
text- manyeven donot rememberitcorrectly; and the focusofthe singer'satten
tionisallalongontunefulness andevocation ofvariformeffectswithinthetechnical
confinesoftheraga chosenfortreatment,sothat theirevocationisatonce,ifnotall
along,aprojectionoftheraga'sownaestheticpotential. Forproductionofeffects,
certain set ways of singing individual notes and traversing their linkages are
employed.Thus, the devicecommonlyknownasgamaksuggestsdepthand power;
and dyut, andolan, dagar,and anuraniitmakautterance work up, r~spectively, the
effects of a twinkle, oscillation or swing,an upgoingmeander, and a kindofnasal
resonancewhichcan besoregulatedastosound verysimilartothe tinklinlftemple
bells as they swayand appear to draw near and to recede in alternation 4. Butit
would be wrong to believe that the effects worked up byiiliipaare only euphonic,
for they can also relate to the life of feeling and desire, say, bycreatingthe tonal
analogueofalongingforwhat isfaroff,yetdeeplyloved 15 .
Yet all this isperhaps of subsidiary value here. The true aesthetic warrant of
alapa,I believe, isits unmatched powerto produce such effects as those ofgran
deur, serenity, seamlessness and infinity; and to evoke an intense yet identifiable
raga-atmosphere. It isindeed this dual power, and obviously no such meaningful
relevance tothe majorissuesoflifeasmaydistinguishagoodtragedyl6,that makes
for profundity in alapa, But though it is true that the raga-atmosphere, or the
overalllookoftheraga, asbuiltupbyalapaisfelttobeseamless, ourresponse here
isbynomeans undiscerning. Theraga'sindividual character- and itsdistinctness
from otherragas - are neverlost sightofbyknowledgeablelisteners. Shouldthis
appearalittle self-discrepantand sounacceptabletosome,Iwouldrejoin bypoint
ing to an experience that is (in principle) accessible to all, say, that of walking
through a flower-laden avenue and of feeling wooed by a .breeze that seems
everywhereand isalsothe bearerofadistinct fragrance.
Here, in passing, a question may be discussed. Can a particularexposition of
alapa-singing be said to have (or to be) a form? Yes, I would readily say, incase
'form' is taken to mean a skilful and aestheticallysignificant interlacementof the
work'sdetails.Greatcarehastobelavishedinalapa,not onlyonthe articulationof
individual notes, but on the manner, both euphonic and temporal, of interlinking
them. Whatstrikes almost every knowledgeable listeneras the singer commences
alapa is the contemplative and often reverential way in which the very opening
HINDUSTANIMUSICANDTIIEPHILOSOPHYOFART 7
notes are sung. The singer, here, rarely seems to be singingfor an audience; he
ratherappearsto be seeking and securing a foothold for furtherwork, not merely
marking theswarasaccurately,but, sotosay,feelingfor theirmelodicinsides;and
the introvertivelookrecurs freelyinmanyofthe mostintense subsequentmoments
ofdldpa. The point to be notedhereisthat dlapa-singing provides an easilyacces
sible illustration of the truth (which Coleridge emphasized) that art-making is a
rhythmofthealternatmgimpulsestocreateand tocontemplatel",Further,insofar
as every presentationofaldpa isdoneina raga-that is,notonlywithinthe limits
of aspecificmelodic scheme, but also asaheuristicconcern withthe creativepos
sibilitiesthatthe scheme inquestionoffers- on completing awell-donetilapathe
singerfeels not merely satisfied but alittleoverawedat the potential immensityof
a singleraga.
III. TheProfoundinMusic
Profundityasexperiencedbythe singerofdlapa and hislisteners derives from
the followingfactors: a tranquiland regulatedbuild-up ofthe melodicfabricwhich
capturesattentionpartlybyvirtueofthe veryattitudesitrequires usto adopt,that
is, not merely sympathetic attention to the present music for its own sake, but
patienceinwaitingforwhatistocomenext,andacreativeimaginativenesstobridge
the many intervals of literal silence that punctuate the course of singing, an act
whichishelped by our own knowledge of the raga-form; abounding moments of
manifestly absorbed, and not merely tuneful, singing; the seemingly exhaustless
potential of the raga to admit of newer and newer effects of depth, height and
beauty; and the melodic atmospherewhich, once ithas to establish itself, appears
to be all around us, and to steep us with a feeling of happy subservience.
Phenomenologically,profundityishereasheerimmensityofsatisfiedfeelingwhich
comes as asequel to a blend ofsome purely musicalvaluesinwhat meets the ear,
and discriminating but not analytical attentionofthe listeners.
It is, I believe, improperto start our search for profundityin musicfrom the
exampleofgreatliterature.Forwhereasliterature,atitsbest, generallybuildsupon
a subject-matterof highseriousness, and maywellbesaid to be about mattersof
generalandabiding interest,suchasthe vicissitudesoflife,what wecallprofound
in the region of Hindustani music- whetheritoccursin the course ofalapaorin
KhyaI-singing(which uses both language and rhythm) - isnever importantlyre
lated toreferencestothe courseorcontentoflife.TheiilapathatIseektofocuson
isnotaboutanythingat all.Inspiteofitsvastcanvas,itisjustitself:aclearvindica
tion ofthe powerof the merely euphonicasagainst the verbal, oflaya (or tempo,
aestheticpace) inoppositiontotiila,andoftheraga-form asdistinguishedfromthe
individual notes itbuilds upon.To suggestthatiildpa maybesaidtobe'about'the
possibilitiesofsoundwouldberatherodd,thoughitmaywellbesaidto revealthese
possibilities. Byvirtue of the sheerforce ofthe wayitiscommonlyused, the word
about suggests representation, a subject-matter, and a more or lessexternalrela
tion betweenthatwhichrelatesand what itisaboutor relatedto. The first twoof
these suggestions are just irrelevant to iiliipa; and tones, and the creative pas-
8 S.K.SAXENA
sibilitiesthey offer, are the verystuffofwhichitismade.
Isuggestthat even inrespect ofliteratureadistinction maybemade betweena
work's looking profoundand d rational accountofwhat makesitappearso.At the
levelofappearance- that is, when it hasjustcast itsspell on us- the workonly
seems to be infinite insignificance, and to engulfus, so to say;it surely touchesus
deeply, but our being quickened into thoughts and imaginings of basic issues,
values, and human foibles is a somewhat subsequent happening. This perhaps
explains,ifinpart,whyaftertheseizureofawork'sprofoundsignificanceoneisnot
straightawaywillingor ableto talk aboutitexplanatorily.Itseems to me that ifthe
primaryphenomenalleveliskeptinmind- thatis,ifprofundityberegardedasthe
feltimpactoftheseeminglyfathomless significanceofawork- itwould helpupin
seeing the likeness of profundity in music and literature without losing sightof
unlikeness ofthewayswhichmake the quality inquestionappearinthe twoarts.
Bethatasitmay,artistsandcriticsinIndiadonot generallytalk ofthemeaning
ofmusic;theyonlyspeakofthepresenceorabsenceofsomeaestheticqualitiessuch
asshapeliness,sweetness, creativevariety and abandon, and amovingorspellbind
ing quality. From the Indian point of View, the characterization of the value or
charmofmusicasitsmeaningisratherglib.Whereamusicalcontinuation issaidto
make sensethe meaning maysimplybethatthe succeeding notes quiteaccordwith
the preceding ones, or that the passage in question clearly meets the technical
demands ofthe raga,'andjustasneitheraperfectlyproportionedfigure norafinely
drawntrianglearesaidtobemeaningful,sotoo apassagethatisnotdiscordantmay
only be said to be agreeable or acceptable rather than meaningful. But does this
mean thatwhat we call pure music has nothing to do with real life? The answer
cannot be given forthwith. We have to make some distinctions. AJapa, our
paradigmofpuremusic,issurelynotquite unrelatedtoreal life.Itis,ineverycase,
the work of aparticularsinger; and the sense ofmusicalexcellence he hascometo
develop, and his personal experience of the life of feeling cannot but determine,
directly or otherwise, the musiche produces. But however manifest be the effects
of, say, repose and unboundedness in his musicgenerally, when he sets out todo
iiliipa, orduring the course ofit, he issurely notguided bythe imageofatranquil
lake or that of the heaven's vast spread, Nor does the trained listener directly
experience the variform effectsofiillipaas likenesses of things and happenings
in real life,thoughwhen he isasked to describethe effects inquestionhemaywell
have to referto some contentsofthe actual world bywayofillustration.Theinsis
tence that aestheticform (as distinguished from what it builds upon) and worldly
significance seem tobeultimately inseparable cannotbetaken unreservedly18.
But, to tum to a pointwhichismore relevant to ourenquiry, howexactlycan
iiliipa facilitate access to the goal of spiritualupliftment? I may venture to answer
this questionasfollows:
It is a basic assumption of the theory ofHindustani music that every ragais
speciallysuitedtoaparticularhourofthe day. ButIsee nopointinthisbeliefunless
the normalfeatures or happeningsofthe hour-or the thoughtsor feelingsitmay
tend to generate- can be transfigured into, or in some otherway help, the sub-
HINDUSTANI MUSICANDTHE PHILOSOPHYOFART 9
stance of music itself, Now, imagine a devotee hallowing the mom with swarasof
raga Bhairavawhich ismeantfor this particularpartof theday. Steadyinghimself
withanutteranceofthetonichesetsouttodevelopthesingingsuchwisethathemay
beable to saturatehimselfwith imagesandattitudesthatsuit thehour- therising
sun, yearning in prayer and the concomitant chastening of self, pouring arghya
(sacredwater)on the idol, andnon-attachmenttowardsthethings ofthe world. A
brief but immaculate touch at the tonic, followed at once by komal re (0 flat)
prolonged finnIy andsweetly, attunes the mind with thesunrise outside, by sug
gestingemergence. The same note (0 flat) touched while descendingfrom ga(E)
provides,inamanner,acleareuphonictranscriptofthe downwardslantofpouring
arghya on the idol. As attunement grows through the aid of swaras(or notes),
detachment deepens and thesingercooperatesbypossessing thesa(tonic) merely
ideallyandlingeringatthere(0flat)- nowfaintly, thoughofcoursesweetly-the
note suggesting transcendence. The re thus becomes an aid to devotion and to
elevationoftheself.
Such self-satisfying and uplifting singing is, however, by no means necessary.
Most of our vocalists would sing the ragaand the notes I have referred to quite
without the ethico-religious orientation I have visualized. At the same time, the
possibilityofturningthematerialand mannerofmusicinto anaidtopersonaluplift
must notbeignored; for otherwise the talk ofrealizing Godthrough musicwould
cease to makeany sense.
IV. WhatisRaga?
It may be addedthatevenwithouttheidealinnerattitudeIhave referredto, a
raga as sung can be quiteeasily identifiable to the knowledgeable, though its aes
theticcharacterorexpressivenesswillsurelysufferachange. Butthis requiresme
to bring out the distinction between the grammatical identity and aesthetic per
sonalityofaraga.Theconceptofragahas beeninterpretedvariously, andItakeit
asan importanttaskofthephilosophyofHindustanimusictopickupandintegrate
the elementsoftruthinthesedifferentviews;and,further, tosoenlargeourunder
standing of the concept that notmerely the components of a raga but the very
dynamicsofthe wayit is createdand experiencedmay be duly covered. With this
largerendinviewIproposeto definearaga as follows:
A ragais a specific melodicform which serves to permit and determine, as a
matrix, the creation and contemplation ofmusic on the basis of the quality,
emphasis and relatedness of tones andrhythmicabidance or passage, with an
19
eye to evoking (in listeners) either the appropriate rasa and/or (at least) a
sweetapprehensionoftheraga'sown whole-form, thelisteners' actualrespon
sesto andexperienceofthemelodyvaryingnecessarily,inrespectofdetail, in
accordance with their individual capacmes for techmcal grasp and aesthetic
sensitiveness20•
Letme now explain this definitionbycommentingon itskey ideas.
To begin with, a ragais a specific melodicform. Thismeans, first, thatit is a
form,oran integration ofits constituentswaras.It isan integration- nota mere
10 S.K. SAXENA
puttingtogether- ofnotes because,thoughnone ofthem can beallowed tosuffer
in respect of grammatical accuracy and sweetness, they are all to be so builtupon
that theymaynotseemto usurp the requisiteaestheticdominanceofthe relationof
thefocal(vadi)and consonant(samvadi)notes. Itisindeedimportantto remember
that'a raga does not represent its constituent notes in theirwholeness; it does not
attach equal importance to allof them. Some of these notes are indeed to receive
lessemphasis than others. No note canofcoursebeallowed to appearindistinctor
off-key; but, on the otherhand,prominencecannotbe equallygivento everynote
oftheraga. Inotherwords, theraga-formisaunityof varyingemphases;itisnotto
be regardedasa rosaryofeven beads; and where, as in ordinary Khyal-singing,a
fluent pattern (tana) seems to treatevery noteevenly, the question mayindeedbe
putifitisable topreservethe propercharacteroftheraga.
Secondly, the suggestion that a raga is melodicform means thatits different
notes followa before-afterorder. This orderin the region ofmusicisnecessarilya
seriesofthe higherand the lower; therefore,progressionand descension(oriiroha
and avaroha)are integralmovementsinthebeingofa raga.
Thirdly,bysayingthat aragaisaspecificmelodicform weonlymean thatevery
raga hasadistinctandidentifiableperceptualcharacter.Itstrikestheeardifferently
from anotherraga. But insofar astwodifferentragas mayemployexactlythe same
notes,ifindissimilarways,theperceptionoftheprecisecharacterofaragamaycall
for afinely trainedearon the partof the rasika.In otherwords, a raga asheardis
not merely received,but isoftenatonce anexercise indiscriminationon thepartof,
the listener.
Further, I have chosen to speakof a raga asa matrixof melody, and not asa
melodictype. (Thisisimportantbecause,inquiteafewpresentationsofHindustani
musicto Westernaudiences, the word ragahasbeentranslatedasmelody-type.)A
type isthe conceptofaclass.Itcertainlycovers or isapplicable to allthingsofthe
same kind; but it obviously does not make or enter into the substance of these
things. Araga, onthe otherhand,isthe substanceor materialofthemelodicwhole
which it is developed into by the singer in a particular recital. It has been freely
regarded, I know, asamelodic type becausemany compositionscan be created in
the same raga. But mypoint isthat thesecompositions are also made out of, and
bringoutthenatureof,theraga chosenfortreatment.Therefore,araga maybesaid
tobeamatrixinthe senseofbeingaground-masswhichisatoncethenecessaryand
pervasivecondition,the material,andthe regulativeand individuatingprinciple,of
musical creation. Further, though it istrue tliat whateveris seen to appearin the
treatment of a raga must not transgress its grammatical character, and that one
cannotheredrawupon anythingwhichliesbeyondthetechnicalboundsoftheraga,
yet, within theseultimatelimits, thereissuch infinite roomfor thecreationofever
newer beauty and effects that no one, not even all the musicians of India taken
together, can exhaust the aesthetic possibilities of even a single raga. From this
point of view, a raga is limitless in spite of its being possessed of a specificin
dividuality.
It would be interestingto see, at some length, how the raga-matrix functions.
HINDUSTANI MUSICANDTHEPHILOSOPHY OFART 11
An analogywould help here. Just as the bedand banksofa riverfacilitate, deter
mine andcontainthe seamlessflowofits waters,similarly, byvirtueofitscompass
andcharacter,aragaprovidesbothfreedomanddirectiontothecontemplationand
creationofmusic. Againlike the river-bedwhichleavesthe watersfree to rippleor
toeddy,ortosimplyflownoiselessly,araga too,apartfrom the normofaccordance
with its grammatical structure and the classical idiom generally, offers.infinite
freedom for musical expression and embellishment. But, of course, the analogyis
byno meansabsolute.The bed oftheriverisclearlynota constituentofits billows
andripples;butaraga,ontheotherhand,byvirtueofthenotesitbuilds upon,isthe
verymaterialofitsmusicalfilling. But,onemayprotest,allthisisabit too general.
What are the specific elements which a raga utilizes? The answeris: quality, em
phasesandrelatednessof tones, andrhythmicabidanceorpassage.
Buttosaysoistomeanagreatdeal,and the implicationsmustbedistinguished.
Thequalityof a notemaybe taken to coverthefollowing: itsbeinghigh or lowby
virtueofitsplacementin thebass,middleor upperregister;itsthinnessorrichness,
tangentialityorpenetration, which respectivelymean how brieforhow long isthe
abidanceofvoice at aparticularnote;and, aboveall, itsexpressiveness- gaiety,a
sad and yearning intenseness, or a simple soulful quality. Variations of aesthetic
pacecan alsolendalookofreposeorimpulsivenesstoatone;buttheireffectisalso
freely that of abandon, easy confluence, decorativeness and winsome grouping.
The words 'relatedness of tones' may be taken to coverthe variousformal graces
someofwhich havebeenalreadylisted.
It is important to see how the manyforms of our present-day classical music
contributevariouslyto theevocationofthe fullaestheticcharacterofaraga. Aliip«
oftheolderkind,wehaveseen,bringsoutthe spaciousness,reposeanddignity that
areimplicitinaraga;and,whatismore,evenitspowertoelevateusandtoencom
passusinthe wayofararefiedatmosphere.Agoodcomposition(orbandish),beit
a Khyal or Dhruvapada21one,projectsthe raga asasingle and easilyidentifiable
wholeness. The lanasof the Khyal-singermanifesthow a raga isasopento aclose
and variedfilling ofvivaciousand decorativepatternsasto the reposefulstretches
of aJapa. So, to speak comprehensively, a raga is neithera mere arrangementof
ascentanddescent(iiroha andavaroha)noraskeletalfixturetowhichthe musichas
only toconform, butarichandintegratedwholenessofimplicitdepth,accommoda
tiveness, repose and vitality, andvariformbeautyand expressiveness.
Thatiswhyourmastermusiciansfreelyspeakofa raga's personality. Indeed,
justasaman'spersonalityisan actualizationofhisdeterminatepotentialities,sois
the form ofaragaarealizationofitsaestheticpotentialwithin the limits, and on the
basis, of its grammatical structure. In thus interpreting raga-form I am not only
encouraged by Aristotle's view that an immanent from "explains a thing's
development, [that] it is the intelligible structure that a thing is when fully
developed,and[that]thegrowthofthethingis[tobe]regardedasastrivingto.make
actual its fonn,,22, but also by the evidence of our actual musical practice and
discourse. The proprietyoflooking on the raga as a kindof livingform- rather
thanasa rigid, inertstructure- shouldnow beobvious.
12 S.K. SAXENA
To conclude, ifwelook at itfrom the aestheticpointof view, aragaiswhator
how its grammatical character comes to appear as a result of the musician's ac
tualizationofthe creative possibilitiesthat it offers. Therasikaand the critichave
tofollowthisprocessofactualizationand togatheritssuccessivemomentsthrough
a constructive use oftheirsympatheticimagination.
V.Music and Expression
InmydiscussionofAliipa andragaIhave spokenofeffects and expressiveness
prettyfreely.But, asweknow, 'expression' inthe contextofart cannotbetakenin
the samesenseinwhichwespeak ofexpressingour thoughtsandfeelingsovertlyin
terms of language. Where we find sadness in music no pressing out is involved.
Howevermanifest it be, the sadness inquestion remains where it is, thatis,inthe
musicitself. Thisiswhywepreferto say: "Themusicissad" or "The musiclooks
sad,orappearsorseems to besad".The italicizedwords perhapscover manymore
strikingfeaturesofmusicthan 'express'which,inthe region ofthisart, isgenerally
used essentially in relation to the lifeoffeeling. One cannotreplace the sentence.
"The composition looks [or is] very balanced" with "The composition expresses
[or embodies!] balance". However, because of the admitted importance of the
expression theory of art, and also because we quite often speakof the expressive
nessofmusic,Ihave togivedue attentiontothe questionastohow(pure)musicis"
related to expression. Itisof course obvious that the relation isnot necessary.A
substantial amount of Hindustani music is admired simply because it isproperly
structured, sweet, and sparkling. Butwhere musicis expressive, howdoesitcome'
to wear the look of what it seems to express? And what exactly is 'expressed' or
presentedto contemplation?To tumtothe second questionfirst, what seemstobe
expressed by(or rather, in) musicisnot merelythe whole range offeelingswhich
are commonly known asemotions, such asjoy and grief, but agood deal ofwhat
Susanne Langerspeaks of asfeeling and its forms, say, the following: excitement
and repose; the easypassage ofareverie;suddenactivation,perhapsofanimpulse
or thought; a moment of intentional waywardness; "precipitate advances [and]
victorious emergences't-I; "the drive and directness of desires; and above allthe
rhythmic continuity of our selfhood"24. All this may be accepted. But the vit~"
question relates to the 'how' of such expressiveness or semblance. How isallthis'
brought about?
Myansweris:invarious ways.ButbeforeIexplain whyIsayso, Imustmakea'
distinction.The questionwehaveposedmaybebrokenupinto two. What doesthe .
singerhave to do toinvest the musicwithitsvariformlook orexpressiveness?And.
what are we, the listeners, to do;orhow are we to equip ourselves to registerthe
expressivenessinquestion?Nowthe answertothesecond questionisclear. Onehas
to become a rasika or a knowledgeable listener by acquiring a knowledge ofthe•
grammar of music and by cultivating percipience through repeated and devoted'
attention at concerts. A laymanmay wellbe able to distinguish soft fromvigoroUS
music,and aslowfrom afluent passage. Butthe individualmomentsofpathosand:
pain- or ofcheerand abandon- whicha tumor passage ofvoicetraversingbut..•
