Table Of ContentHANDBOOK
OF OPTICS
ABOUT THE EDITORS
Editor-in-Chief: Dr. Michael Bass is professor emeritus at CREOL, The College of Optics and
Photonics, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida.
Associate Editors:
Dr. Casimer M. DeCusatis is a distinguished engineer and technical executive with IBM
Corporation.
Dr. Jay M. Enoch is dean emeritus and professor at the School of Optometry at the University
of California, Berkeley.
Dr. Vasudevan Lakshminarayanan is professor of Optometry, Physics, and Electrical Engineering
at the University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada.
Dr. Guifang Li is a professor at CREOL, The College of Optics and Photonics, University of
Central Florida, Orlando, Florida.
Dr. Carolyn MacDonald is a professor at the University at Albany, and director of the Center
for X-Ray Optics.
Dr. Virendra N. Mahajan is a distinguished scientist at The Aerospace Corporation.
Dr. Eric Van Stryland is a professor at CREOL, The College of Optics and Photonics, University
of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida.
HANDBOOK
OF OPTICS
Volume III
Vision and Vision Optics
THIRD EDITION
Sponsored by the
OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA
Michael Bass
Editor-in-Chief
CREOL, The College of Optics and Photonics
University of Central Florida,
Orlando, Florida
Jay M. Enoch
Associate Editor
School of Optometry, University of California at Berkeley
Berkeley, California
and
Department of Ophthalmology
University of California at San Francisco
San Francisco, California
Vasudevan Lakshminarayanan
Associate Editor
School of Optometry and Departments of Physics and Electrical Engineering
University of Waterloo
Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid
Mexico City Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul
Singapore Sydney Toronto
Copyright © 2010 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright
Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or
retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
ISBN: 978-0-07-162928-7
MHID: 0-07-162928-9
The material in this eBook also appears in the print version of this title: ISBN: 978-0-07-149891-3, MHID: 0-07-149891-5.
All trademarks are trademarks of their respective owners. Rather than put a trademark symbol after every occurrence of a trade-
marked name, we use names in an editorial fashion only, and to the benefit of the trademark owner, with no intention of infringe-
ment of the trademark. Where such designations appear in this book, they have been printed with initial caps.
McGraw-Hill eBooks are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales promotions, or for use in corporate
training programs. To contact a representative please e-mail us at [email protected].
Information contained in this work has been obtained by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (“McGraw-Hill”) from sources believed
to be reliable. However, neither McGraw-Hill nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published
herein, and neither McGraw-Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this
information. This work is published with the understanding that McGraw-Hill and its authors are supplying information but are not
attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate pro-
fessional should be sought.
TERMS OF USE
This is a copyrighted work and The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (“McGraw-Hill”) and its licensors reserve all rights in and to the
work. Use of this work is subject to these terms. Except as permitted under the Copyright Act of 1976 and the right to store and
retrieve one copy of the work, you may not decompile, disassemble, reverse engineer, reproduce, modify, create derivative works
based upon, transmit, distribute, disseminate, sell, publish or sublicense the work or any part of it without McGraw-Hill’s prior con-
sent. You may use the work for your own noncommercial and personal use; any other use of the work is strictly prohibited. Your right
to use the work may be terminated if you fail to comply with these terms.
THE WORK IS PROVIDED “AS IS.” McGRAW-HILL AND ITS LICENSORS MAKE NO GUARANTEES OR WARRANTIES
AS TO THE ACCURACY, ADEQUACY OR COMPLETENESS OF OR RESULTS TO BE OBTAINED FROM USING THE
WORK, INCLUDING ANY INFORMATION THAT CAN BE ACCESSED THROUGH THE WORK VIA HYPERLINK OR OTH-
ERWISE, AND EXPRESSLY DISCLAIM ANY WARRANTY, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. McGraw-Hill and its
licensors do not warrant or guarantee that the functions contained in the work will meet your requirements or that its operation will
be uninterrupted or error free. Neither McGraw-Hill nor its licensors shall be liable to you or anyone else for any inaccuracy, error
or omission, regardless of cause, in the work or for any damages resulting therefrom. McGraw-Hill has no responsibility for the con-
tent of any information accessed through the work. Under no circumstances shall McGraw-Hill and/or its licensors be liable for any
indirect, incidental, special, punitive, consequential or similar damages that result from the use of or inability to use the work, even
if any of them has been advised of the possibility of such damages. This limitation of liability shall apply to any claim or cause what-
soever whether such claim or cause arises in contract, tort or otherwise.
COVER ILLUSTRATIONS
A Photograph Taken of a Lady Viewing Her Face Using One of the World’s Oldest Ground
and Polished Mirrors. The oldest known manufactured mirrors (ground and polished), made
of obsidian (volcanic glass) have been found in ancient Anatolia in the ruins of the City of Çatal
Hüyük = “mound at a road-fork.” The locations where the mirrors were discovered were dated
6000 to 5900 B.C.E. by Mellaart and his coworkers. That city is located in the South Konya
Plane of Modern Turkey. Thus, these mirrors are about 8000 years old (B.P.). The obsidian
was transported over a distance of more than one hundred miles to the city for processing.
These mirrors can be found at the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations in Ankara. One cannot
fail to be impressed by the quality of this image seen by refl ectance from this ancient mirror!
These mirrors had been buried twice. There is an extended history of processing of obsidian
at that site for scrapers, spear, and arrow points and other tools. This very early city contained
an estimated 10,000 individuals at that time(!); it was a center for development of modern
agriculture, Indo-European languages, various crafts, etc., and had established road connec-
tions and trade relations [Enoch, J., Optom. Vision Sci.83(10):775–781, 2006]. (This fi gure is
published with permission of Prof. Mellaart, the Director of the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations,
the author, and the editor of the Journal.)
Waveguide Modal Patterns in Vertebrate Eyes (Including Human). This illustration demon-
strates the variety of waveguide modal patterns observed in freshly removed retinas obtained
from normal human, monkey, and rat retinas [Enoch, J., J. Opt. Soc. Am.53(1):71–85, 1963].
These modal patterns have been recorded in paracentral retinal receptors. Reverse path illu-
mination was employed. These modes were photographed in near monochromatic light. This
fi gure provides representative modal patterns observed and recorded near terminations of
these photoreceptor waveguides. With variation of wavelength, at cutoff (please refer to the “V”
parameter), it is possible to witness sharp modal pattern alterations. In this fi gure, the intent
was to show the classes of modal patterns observed in these retinal receptors. (This fi gure is
reproduced with permission of JOSA and the author.)
Photoreceptors in the Human Eye.This fi gure shows the fi rst map ever made of the spatial
arrangement of the three cone classes in the human retina. The three colors (red, green, and
blue) indicate cones that are sensitive to the long, middle, and short wavelength ranges of the
visible spectrum and are classifi ed as L, M, and S cones. The image was recorded from a living
human eye using the adaptive optics ophthalmoscope, which was developed by David Williams’
lab at the University of Rochester [Liang, J., Williams, D. R., and Miller, D. (1997). Supernormal
vision and high-resolution retinal imaging through adaptive optics, J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 14:2884–
2892]. This image was fi rst published in the journal Nature [Roorda, A., and Williams, D. R.
(1999). The arrangement of the three cone classes in the living human eye, Nature397:520–522].
(Courtesy of Austin Roorda and David Williams.)
This page intentionally left blank
CONTENTS
Contributors xiii
Brief Contents of All Volumes xv
Editors’ Preface xxi
Preface to Volume III xxiii
Glossary and Fundamental Constants xxvii
Chapter 1. Optics of the Eye Neil Charman 1.1
1.1 Glossary / 1.1
1.2 Introduction / 1.3
1.3 Ocular Parameters and Ametropia / 1.4
1. 4 Ocular Transmittance and Retinal Illuminance / 1.8
1.5 Factors Affecting In-Focus Retinal Image Quality / 1.12
1.6 Final Retinal Image Quality / 1.21
1.7 Depth-of-Focus and Accommodation / 1.28
1.8 Eye Models / 1.36
1.9 Two Eyes and Stereopsis / 1.38
1.10 Movements of the Eyes / 1.42
1.11 Conclusion / 1.45
1.12 References / 1.45
Chapter 2. Visual Performance Wilson S. Geisler
and Martin S. Banks 2.1
2.1 Glossary / 2.1
2.2 Introduction / 2.2
2.3 Optics, Anatomy, Physiology of the Visual System / 2.2
2.4 Visual Performance / 2.14
2.5 Acknowledgments / 2.41
2.6 References / 2.42
Chapter 3. Psychophysical Methods Denis G. Pelli and Bart Farell 3.1
3.1 Introduction / 3.1
3.2 Defi nitions / 3.2
3.3 Visual Stimuli / 3.3
3.4 Adjustments / 3.4
3.5 Judgments / 3.6
Magnitude Estimation / 3.8
3.6 Stimulus Sequencing / 3.9
3.7 Conclusion / 3.9
3.8 Tips from the Pros / 3.10
3.9 Acknowledgments / 3.10
3.10 References / 3.10
Chapter 4. Visual Acuity and Hyperacuity Gerald Westheimer 4.1
4.1 Glossary / 4.1
4.2 Introduction / 4.2
4.3 Stimulus Specifi cations / 4.2
vii
viii CONTENTS
4.4 Optics of the Eye’s Resolving Capacity / 4.4
4.5 Retinal Limitations—Receptor Mosaic and Tiling of Neuronal Receptive Fields / 4.5
4.6 Determination of Visual Resolution Thresholds / 4.6
4.7 Kinds of Visual Acuity Tests / 4.7
4.8 Factors Affecting Visual Acuity / 4.9
4.9 Hyperacuity / 4.14
4.10 Resolution, Superresolution, and Information Theory / 4.15
4.11 Summary / 4.16
4.12 References / 4.16
Chapter 5. Optical Generation of the Visual
Stimulus Stephen A. Burns and Robert H. Webb 5.1
5.1 Glossary / 5.1
5.2 Introduction / 5.1
5.3 The Size of the Visual Stimulus / 5.2
5.4 Free or Newtonian Viewing / 5.2
5.5 Maxwellian Viewing / 5.4
5.6 Building an Optical System / 5.8
5.7 Light Exposure and Ocular Safety / 5.18
5.8 Light Sources / 5.19
5.9 Coherent Radiation / 5.19
5.10 Detectors / 5.21
5.11 Putting It Together / 5.21
5.12 Conclusions / 5.24
5.13 Acknowledgments / 5.24
5.14 General References / 5.25
5.15 References / 5.26
Chapter 6. The Maxwellian View: with an Addendum
on Apodization Gerald Westheimer 6.1
6.1 Glossary / 6.1
6.2 Introduction / 6.2
6.3 Postscript (2008) / 6.13
Chapter 7. Ocular Radiation Hazards David H. Sliney 7.1
7.1 Glossary / 7.1
7.2 Introduction / 7.2
7.3 Injury Mechanisms / 7.2
7.4 Types of Injury / 7.3
7.5 Retinal Irradiance Calculations / 7.7
7.6 Examples / 7.8
7.7 Exposure Limits / 7.9
7.8 Discussion / 7.11
7.9 References / 7.15
Chapter 8. Biological Waveguides
Vasudevan Lakshminarayanan and Jay M. Enoch 8.1
8.1 Glossary / 8.1
8.2 Introduction / 8.2
8.3 Waveguiding in Retinal Photoreceptors and the Stiles-Crawford Effect / 8.3
8.4 Waveguides and Photoreceptors / 8.3
8.5 Photoreceptor Orientation and Alignment / 8.5
8.6 Introduction to the Models and Theoretical Implications / 8.8
8.7 Quantitative Observations of Single Receptors / 8.15
8.8 Waveguide Modal Patterns Found in Monkey/Human Retinal Receptors / 8.19
8.9 Light Guide Effect in Cochlear Hair Cells and Human Hair / 8.24
CONTENTS ix
8.10 Fiber-Optic Plant Tissues / 8.26
8.11 Sponges / 8.28
8.12 Summary / 8.29
8.13 References / 8.29
Chapter 9. The Problem of Correction for the Stiles-Crawford
Effect of the First Kind in Radiometry and
Photometry, a Solution Jay M. Enoch and
Vasudevan Lakshminarayanan 9.1
9.1 Glossary / 9.1
9.2 Introduction / 9.2
9.3 The Problem and an Approach to Its Solution / 9.3
9.4 Sample Point-by-Point Estimates of SCE-1 and Integrated SCE-1 Data / 9.6
9.5 Discussion / 9.13
9.6 Teleological and Developmental Factors / 9.14
9.7 Conclusions / 9.14
9.8 References / 9.15
Chapter 10. Colorimetry David H. Brainard and Andrew Stockman 10.1
10.1 Glossary / 10.1
10.2 Introduction / 10.2
10.3 Fundamentals of Colorimetry / 10.3
10.4 Color Coordinate Systems / 10.11
10.5 Matrix Representations and Calculations / 10.24
10.6 Topics / 10.32
10.7 Appendix—Matrix Algebra / 10.45
10.8 References / 10.49
Chapter 11. Color Vision Mechanisms Andrew Stockman and
David H. Brainard 11.1
11.1 Glossary / 11.1
11.2 Introduction / 11.3
11.3 Basics of Color-Discrimination Mechanisms / 11.9
11.4 Basics of Color-Appearance Mechanisms / 11.26
11.5 Details and Limits of the Basic Model / 11.31
11.6 Conclusions / 11.79
11.7 Acknowledgments / 11.85
11.8 References / 11.86
Chapter 12. Assessment of Refraction and Refractive
Errors and Their Infl uence on Optical
Design B. Ralph Chou 12.1
12.1 Glossary / 12.1
12.2 Introduction / 12.3
12.3 Refractive Errors / 12.3
12.4 Assessment of Refractive Error / 12.5
12.5 Correction of Refractive Error / 12.8
12.6 Binocular Factors / 12.15
12.7 Consequences for Optical Design / 12.17
12.8 References / 12.17
Chapter 13. Binocular Vision Factors That Infl uence
Optical Design Clifton Schor 13.1
13.1 Glossary / 13.1
13.2 Combining the Images in the Two Eyes into One Perception of the Visual Field / 13.3
13.3 Distortion of Space by Monocular Magnifi cation / 13.13
