Table Of Content‘Gems of Heaven’
Recent Research on Engraved 
Gemstones in Late Antiquity, 
c. AD 200–600
Edited by Chris Entwistle and Noël Adams
British Museum Research Publication 
Number 177
Publishers
The British Museum
Great Russell Street
London WC1B 3DG
Series Editor Josephine Turquet
Assistant Production Editor: Anna Cunnane
Distributors
The British Museum Press
38 Russell Square
London WC1B 3QQ
‘Gems of Heaven’
Recent Research on Engraved Gemstones in Late Antiquity,  
c. AD 200–600
Edited by Chris Entwistle and Noël Adams
Front Cover: Sardonyx cameo of Julia Domna as the Dea Caelestis. 
British Museum, GR 1956,0517.1. See, Marsden, Pl. 2, p. 164
ISBN 978-086159-177-0 
ISSN 1747-3640
© The Trustees of the British Museum 2011
Second printing 2012
Printed and bound in the UK by 4edge Ltd, Hockley
Papers used in this book are recyclable products made from wood 
grown in well-managed forests and other controlled sources. The 
manufacturing processes conform to the environmental regulations of 
the country of origin.
Contents
Foreword    v
List of Contributors  vi
Illustration Acknowledgements  viii
Non-destructive Gemmological Tests for the Identification of Ancient Gems  1
Çiğdem Lüle
A Case Study on Gemstone Origins: Chrysothrix, a Group of Roman Magical Gems  4
Lisbet Thoresen
The Garnet Millennium: the Role of Seal Stones in Garnet Studies  10
Noël Adams
Lithóis Indikois: Preliminary Characterisation of Garnet Seal Stones from   25 
Central and South Asia
Noël Adams, Çiğdem Lüle and Emma Passmore
Archaeologies of Magical Gems  39
 Richard Gordon
Text, Image and Medium: the Evolution of Graeco-Roman Magical Gemstones  50
Chris Faraone
The Colours of Magical Gems  62
Attilio Mastrocinque
Magic and Medicine: Gems and the Power of Seals   69
Véronique Dasen
Magical Gems and Classical Archaeology  75
Árpád M. Nagy
Studies on Magical Amulets in the British Museum  82
Simone Michel-von Dungern
‘Grylloi’    88
Ken Lapatin
Engraved Gems from Sites with a Military Presence in Roman Palestine:  99  
the Cases of Legio and Aelia Capitolina
Orit Peleg-Barkat and Yotam Tepper
Selected Antique Gems from Israel: Excavated Glyptics from Roman-Byzantine Tombs   105
Shua Amorai-Stark and Malka Hershkovitz
Christian Gems from Portugal in Context  114
Graça Cravinho and Shua Amorai-Stark
Intaglios and Cameos from Gaul in the 3rd and 4th Centuries AD  127
Hélène Guiraud
Late Roman Gems from Tilurium in Croatia  130
Bruna Nardelli 
Three Degrees of Separation: Detail Reworking, Type Updating and Identity.   135 
Transformation in Roman Imperial Glyptic Portraits in the Round
Elisabetta Gagetti
Gem Portraits of Soldier-Emperors  149
Erika Zwierlein-Diehl 
Gods or Mortals – Images on Imperial Portrait Gems, Medallions and  163 
Coins in the 3rd Century AD
Adrian Marsden
Love and Passion: Personal Cameos in Late Antiquity from the Content Collection  179
Helen Molesworth and Martin Henig
The Belgrade Cameo  186
Antje Krug
Late Antique and Early Christian Gems: Some Unpublished Examples  193
Jeffrey Spier
The Argument from Silence: Iconographic Statements of 1981   208 
on Faked Gems Reconsidered
Josef Engemann
The Constanza Carnelian and the Development of   214 
Crucifixion Iconography in Late Antiquity
Felicity Harley-McGowan
Seals in Transition: their Change of Function and Value in Late Antiquity  221
Gertrud Platz-Horster
Myth Revisited: the Re-use of Mythological Cameos and Intaglios in  229  
Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages
Gemma Sena Chiesa
Inscriptions on Portrait Gems and Discs in Late Antiquity (4th to 6th centuries AD):   239 
Between Epigraphical Tradition and Numismatic Particularism
Sébastien Aubry
Roman Intaglios Oddly Set: the Transformative Power of the Metalwork Mount  248
Genevra Kornbluth
The Re-use and Re-interpretation of Gemstones in Medieval Hungary  257
Tamás Gesztelyi
Reflections on Gems Depicting the Contest of Athena and Poseidon  263
Hadrien Rambach
Foreword
The papers in this volume derive from a conference held at the  generously gave a considerable amount of her time to the 
British Museum on May 28 through to May 31 2009. Organised  initial lay-out and design. As ever, the volume would not have 
under the auspices of the British Museum Byzantine Seminar,  been possible without both the energy and forebearance of 
this conference was the sixth in an ongoing series of annual  Josephine Turquet, Series Editor of British Museum Research 
conferences held at the British Museum since 2003 devoted to  Publications.
the material culture of Late Antiquity and Byzantium. All but  Finally, given the inordinate expense in hosting 
four of the 34 papers given at the conference in 2009 are  international conferences in this day and age, I would like to 
published here.  thank the following who gave so generously towards the costs 
For their assistance with photographic enquiries I would  of putting on the conference in 2009:
like to thank respectively Dr Irma Wehgartner of the Martin- Dr and Mrs Jonathan P. Rosen (The Joseph Rosen 
von-Wagner-Museum, University of Würzburg, and Drs Matteo  Foundation)
and Maria Campagnolo of the Musée d’art et d’histoire,  Phoenix Ancient Art S.A., New York
Geneva. My gratitude is also due to Saul Peckham, our  Derek J. Content Esq.
departmental photographer, Claudio Mari, Digital Image  John W. Rassweiler Esq. 
Coordinator in Collections Services (Photography and 
Imaging), in particular for his work on the magical gems, and  Chris Entwistle
finally to Steve Crummy our departmental illustrator. Anna  Department of Prehistory and Europe
Cunnane a voluntary intern at British Museum Press  The British Museum
‘Gems of Heaven’ | v
List of Contributors Dr Richard Gordon
Universität Erfurt 
Postfach 90 0221 
Dr Noël Adams 99105 Erfurt
c/o Department of Prehistory and Europe Germany
British Museum [email protected] 
London WC1B 3DG
UK Professor Hélène Guiraud
[email protected]  BAL 59
2 boulevard d'Arcole
Professor Shua Amorai-Stark 31000 Toulouse
Kaye College of Education  France 
Beer-Sheva  [email protected]
Israel 
[email protected] Dr Felicity Harley-McGowan
School of Culture and Communication
Dr Sébastien Aubry The University of Melbourne
Rue Jardinière 91 Victoria 3010 
CH-2300 La Chaux-de-Fonds (NE) Australia
Switzerland [email protected]
[email protected]
Dr Martin Henig
Dr Graça Cravinho  Institute of Archaeology
Instituto de História da Arte  36 Beaumont Street
Universidade Nova de Lisboa Oxford, OX1 2PG
Av. de Berna, 26-C  UK
P 1069-061 Lisboa  [email protected]
Portugal
[email protected] Dr Malka Hershkovitz 
Institute of Archaeology  
Professor Dr Véronique Dasen Hebrew University 
Institut des Sciences de l’Antiquité et du monde byzantin  Mount Scopos, 91905 
Séminaire d'archéologie classique Jerusalem
Université de Fribourg Israel
16 rue Pierre-Aeby [email protected]
1700 Fribourg
Switzerland Dr Genevra Kornbluth
[email protected] 10508 Forestgate Place
Glenn Dale
Professor Dr Josef Engemann MD 20769
Moosstraße 145a USA
5020 Salzburg [email protected]
Austria
[email protected]  Dr Antje Krug
c/o Deutsches Archäologisches Institut
Chris Entwistle Podbielskiallee 69-71
Department of Prehistory and Europe D - 14195 Berlin
British Museum Germany
London WC1B 3DG [email protected] 
UK
[email protected] Dr Ken Lapatin
Department of Antiquities
Professor Chris Faraone The J. Paul Getty Museum
Department of Classics  1200 Getty Center Drive
University of Chicago Suite 1000V
1115 E. 58th St  Los Angeles, CA 90049-1745
Chicago, IL 60637 USA
USA [email protected]
[email protected]
Dr Çiğdem Lüle
Dr Elisabetta Gagetti 1679 Henley Court
Masaryk University Wheeling
Faculty of Arts Illinois, 60090
Department of Archaeology and Museology USA
Arna Novaka, 1 [email protected]
60200 Brno
Czech Republic Dr Adrian Marsden
[email protected] Norfolk Landscape Archaeology
Shirehall
Dr Tamás Gesztelyi Market Avenue
Institue of Classical Philology Norwich
University of Debrecen NR1 3JQ 
H-4032 Debrecen [email protected]
Hungary
[email protected]
vi | ‘Gems of Heaven’
List of Contributors
Professor Attilio Mastrocinque Dr Gertrud Platz-Horster
Dipartimento di Arte, Archeologia, Storia e Società c/o Antikensammlung
Universitá di Verona  Staatliche Museen zu Berlin
Via dell’Artigliere 8 Bodestrasse 1-3 
37129 Verona D – 19178 Berlin
Italy Germany
[email protected] [email protected]
Dr Simone Michel-von Dungern Hadrien Rambach 
Museum Malerwinkelhaus 34 Campden Hill Towers 
Stadt Marktbreit 112 Notting Hill Gate 
Marktstraße 4 London W11 3QW
97340 Marktbreit UK 
Germany [email protected]
[email protected]
Professor Gemma Sena Chiesa
Helen Molesworth Dipartimento Di Scienze Dell’Antichità’
Avenue du Mail 25 University of Milan
Geneva 1205 via Festa del Perdono
Switzerland 20122 Milan
[email protected]  Italy
[email protected]
Dr Árpád M. Nagy
Classical Collection Dr Jeffrey Spier
Museum of Fine Arts   13316 E. Placita El Algodon
Dózsa György út 41 Tucson
1146 Budapest  Arizona 85749 
Hungary USA
[email protected] [email protected]
Dr Bruna Nardelli  Dr Yotam Tepper 
Santa Croce 2333  Israel Antiquities Authority
30135 Venezia POB 35
Italy Nahalal 10600
[email protected] Israel 
[email protected]
Dr Emma Passmore
Department of Conservation and Scientific Research  Lisbet Thoresen
British Museum PO Box 1587
London WC1B 3DG Beverly Hills, CA 90213
[email protected] USA
[email protected]
Dr Orit Peleg-Barkat
The Institute of Archaeology Professor Dr Erika Zwierlein-Diehl 
Hebrew University of Jerusalem Institut für Kunstgeschichte und Archäologie
Mount Scopus, 91005 Universität Bonn
Israel Regina-Pacis-Weg 3
[email protected] 53113 Bonn
Germany 
[email protected]
‘Gems of Heaven’ | vii
Illustration Acknowledgements
N. Adams: The Garnet Millennium: the Role of Seal Stones in Garnet  J. Engemann: The Argument from Silence: Iconographic Statements of 
Studies 1981 on Faked Gems Reconsidered
Pls 1,2,3,4,5,6,7, 9,10 – author; Pl. 8 – Kubaba Photography, New York. Pls 1,5,6,7,8,11 – London, British Museum; Pl. 2 – after A. Mastrocinque, 
‘Orpheos Bakchikos’, Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 97 
N. Adams, Ç. Lüle and E. Passmore: Lithóis Indikois: Preliminary  (1993), fig. 1; Pl. 3 – Rome, German Archaeological Institute; Pl. 4 – 
Characterisation of Garnet Seal Stones from Central and South Asia  after R. Garrucci, Storia dell’arte Cristiana, Prato, 1872, VI, pl. 479, n. 
Pl. 1 – Emma Passmore; Pls Group I, 1–8, Group II, 1–11 – Noël Adams  15; Pl. 9 – after J. Spier, Late Antique and Early Christian Gems, 
Weisbaden, 2007, no. 432; Pl. 10 – after F.J. Dölger, ICHTHYS: Das Fisch-
S. Amorai-Stark and M. Hershkovitz: Selected Antique Gems from  Symbol in frühchristlicher Zeit, Rome, 1910, 334, fig. 50; Pl. 12 – after J. 
Israel: Excavated Glyptics from Roman-Byzantine Tombs  Dresken-Weiland, Repertorium der christlich-antiken Sarkophage, Vol. 
Pls 1–10, 12–36 – courtesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority and the  2: Italien mit einem Nachtrag Rom und Ostia, Dalmatien, Museen der 
Israel Exploration Journal; Pl. 11 – London, British Museum. Welt, Mainz, 1998, 83–4, no. 242, pl. 80,2; Pls 13,14,19 – after C. 
Christern-Briesenick, Repertorium der christlich-antiken Sarkophage, 
S. Aubry: Inscriptions on Portrait Gems in Late Antiquity (4th to 6th  Vol. 3: Frankreich, Algerien, Tunesien, Mainz, 2003, 23–5, no. 38; Pls 
centuries AD): Between Epigraphical Tradition and Numismatic  15,16,17,18 – after H. Brandenburg, Repertorium der christlich-antiken 
Particularism Sarkophage, Vol. 1: Rom und Ostia, Wiesbaden, 1967, 271–2, no. 674 and 
Pl. 1 – author; Pls 2,3,6,7,8,9,10,13,15,16,18,19,20,21,22,23,26,28 – after  no. 43; Pl. 20 – after P. Angiolini Martinelli and P. Robino (eds), La 
J. Spier, Late Antique and Early Christian Gems, Weisbaden, 2007, nos  basilica di San Vitale a Ravenna 2, Modena, 1997, 210, fig. 411; Pl. 21 – 
20,18,76,60,52,23,43,19,42,25,45, 74,39,1,44,17: my thanks to Jeffrey  after M. Marcenaro, Il battistero di Albenga, Recco, 1994, fig. on 26; Pl. 
Spier; Pl. 4 – © Numismatica Genevensis, Auction 2 (18 November 2002),  22 – after C. Cecchelli, J. Furlani and M. Salmi, The Rabbula Gospels, 
no. 142: thanks to L. Baglione, www.ngsa.ch; Pl. 5 – after J. Spier, ‘Some  1959, Olten-Lausanne, pl. 9.4.
unconventional Early Byzantine Rings’, in C. Entwistle and N. Adams, 
‘Intelligible Beauty’: Recent Research on Byzantine Jewellery, London,  C. Faraone: Text, Image and Medium: the Evolution of Graeco-Roman 
2010, pls 3a,3c; Pl. 11 – © Soprintendenza Speciale per i Beni  Magical Gemstones 
Archeologici di Napoli e Pompei, no. inv. 26054/216: thanks to P.G.  Pls 1–7,10–12,14,15,17–19 – London, British Museum; Pl. 8 – after C. 
Guzzo, [email protected]; Pl. 12 – after M. Henig, The Content  Lenormant, Revue Archéologique (1846), 510; Pl. 9 – after E. Kunze, 
Cameos, Oxford, 1990, no. 45; Pls 14,29,32 – after M.-L. Vollenweider  Archaische Schildbänder, Berlin, 1950, IIIc, pl. 14; IVg, pl. 19; XLIIg, pl. 
and M. Avisseau-Broustet, Intailles et camées II. Les portraits romains  66; Pl. 13 – Washington DC, Dumbarton Oaks Collection; Pl. 16 – after 
du Cabinet des médailles, Paris, 2003, nos 228, 162, 135; Pl. 17 – after  O. Tempkin, Soranus’ Gynecology, Baltimore, 1955, 9, fig. 1.
M.-L. Vollenweider, Die Porträtgemmen der römischen Republik, Mainz 
am Rhein, 1972–74, pl. 106/8; Pl. 24 – after A.M. McCann, The portraits  E. Gagetti: Three Degrees of Separation: Detail Reworking, Type 
of Septimius Severus (MAAR XXX), Roma, 1968, 183 (j), pl. XCII; Pls  Updating and Identity. Transformation in Roman Imperial Glyptic 
25,30 – E. Zwielein-Diehl, Glaspasten in Martin-von-Wagner Museum  Portraits in the Round
der Universität Würzburg, Munich, 1986, nos 801,819; Pls 27,31 – after E.  Tables 1,2,3 – author; Pl. 1 – after H. Jucker, ‘Trajanstudien zu einem 
Zwielein-Diehl, Antike Gemmen des Kunsthistorischen Museums in  Chalzedonbüstchen im Antikenmuseum’, Jahrbuch der Berliner 
Wien, vol. 3, Vienna, 1991, nos 1741, 1729; Pl. 33 – after E. Spagnoli and  Museen 26 (1984), pl. 23i; Pl. 2 – after E. Gagetti, Preziose sculture di età 
M.C. Molinari, ‘Le monete’, in  A. Salvioni (ed.), Il tesoro di Via  ellenistica e romana (Il Filarete. Collana di studi e testi. Università degli 
Alessandrina, Rome, 1990, 94, no. 17; Pl. 34 – after L. Pirzio Biroli  Studi di Milano. Pubblicazioni della Facoltà di Lettere e Filosofia, 240), 
Stefanelli, ‘I gioielli’, in A. Salvioni (ed.), Il tesoro di Via Alessandrina,  Milan, 2006, pl. XI, A23; Pls 3,18 – after D. Boschung, ‘Die Bildnistypen 
Rome, 1990, 45, no. 5. der iulisch-claudischen Kaiser-familie: ein kritischer Forschungs-
bericht’, Journal of Roman Archaeology 6 (1993), figs 30–5, 56–8; Pls 4,5 
G. Cravinho and S. Amorai-Stark: Christian Gems from Portugal in  – after K. Fittschen and P. Zanker, Katalog der römischen Porträts in den 
Context Capitolinischen Museen und den anderen kommunalen Sammlungen der 
Pl.1 – © Luis Fraga da Silva; Pl. 2 – © Pedro Cravinho; Pls 3,4 – after  Stadt Rom, I, Kaiser- und Prinzenbildnisse (Beiträge zur Erschliessung), 
H.H. Hofstätter and H. Pixa, História universal comparada, III, Lisbon,  Mainz am Rhein, 19942, pl. 12a; Pl. 6 – after G. Traversari, ‘Nuovo 
1985, 113; Pl. 5 – © Braga, Museu D. Diogo de Sousa; Pls 6,28 – © Lisbon,  ritratto di Cleopatra VII Philopator e rivisitazione critica 
Museu Nacional de Arquelogia; Pl. 7 – © Conimbriga, Museu de  dell’iconografia dell’ultima regina d’Egitto’, Rivista di Archeologia 21 
Conimbriga and author; Pls 8,9,10,11,12,13,26,33,34,35,36,37,38,39 –  (1998), pls 18–20; Pl. 7 – after S. Walker and P. Higgs (eds), Cleopatra 
author; Pls 14,15 – after C.A. Ferreira de Almeida, ‘Arte paleo-cristã da  regina d’Egitto (exh. cat., Rome), Milan, no. III.53a; Pl. 8 – after G. 
época das Invasões’, História da Arte em Portugal, II, Lisbon 1986, 14  Arbore Popescu (ed.), Traiano. Ai confini dell’impero (exh. cat., 
and 10; Pl. 16 – after V.H. Correia, Conímbriga – Guia das Ruínas,  Ancona), Milan, 1998, no. 325 (front); A. Giuliano, I Cammei della 
Lisbon, 2003, 12; Pl. 17 – after A.M. Alarcão, F. Mayet and J. Nolen,  Collezione Medicea del Museo Archeologico di Firenze, Rome–Milan, 
‘Ruínas de Coimbra’, Roteiros da Arqueologia Portuguesa 2 (1989), 83;  1989, pl. 181 (profile to right); A. Carandini, Vibia Sabina. Funzione 
Pl. 18 – after E. França, ‘Anéis, braceletes e brincos de Conimbriga’,  politica, iconografia e il problema del classicismo adrianeo (Accademia 
Conimbriga VIII (1969), 61; Pls 19,20,21,22,24,25 – © Conimbriga,  Toscana di Scienze e Lettere ‘La Colombaria’. Studi, 13), Firenze, 1969, 
Museu Monográfico de Conimbriga; Pl. 23 – © Conimbriga, Museu de  pls 215, 217 (profile to left and reverse); Pls 9,10,11 – after A.M. Reggiani 
Conimbriga; Pls 27,30,31 – after M. Fabião, M. Dias and M. Cunha, SIT  (ed.), Adriano. Le Memorie al femminile (exh. cat., Tivoli), Milan, 2004, 
TIBI TERRA LEVIS – Rituais Funerários Romanos e Paleocristãos em  105–6; 78; 139; Pls 12,13,14 – after F. Baratte, ‘Un portrait féminin des 
Portugal (Catálogo de Exposição), Museu Nacional de Arqueologia,  collections du Louvre’, Revue Archéologique 1984 (2), pls. 1–4, 5–7, 9–11; 
Lisboa, Lisbon, 2008, 50–1; Pl. 29 – © Museu de Arqueologia e  Pl. 15 – after Dr. Busso Peus Nachfolger, auction catalogue, 400 (April 
Numismática de Vila Real and author; Pl. 32 – © Arquivo Centro de  22nd 2010), lot 653; Pl. 16 – after H. von Heintze, ‘Ein spätantikes 
Arqueologia de Almadal; Pl. 33 – after F. Almeida, ‘Antiguidades da  Mädchenporträt in Bonn. Zur stilistischen Entwicklung des Frauen-
Egitânia – alguns achados dignos de nota’, Arqueologia e História, 8ª  bildnisses im 4. und 5. Jahrhundert’, Jahrbuch für Antike und 
série, 11 (1965), pl. III, no. 1.  Christentum 14 (1971), pls 6b,d; Pl. 17 – London, British Museum; Pl. 19 – 
after D. Salzmann, ‘Beobachtungen zu Münzprägung und 
V. Dasen: Magic and Medicine: Gems and the Power of Seals  Ikonographie des Claudius’, Archäologischer Anzeiger (1976), pls 9–10; 
Pl. 1 – after L’oeil dans l’antiquité romaine, Lons-le-Saunier, 1994, fig. on  Pl. 20 – after J. Meischner, ‘Studien zur spätantike Kaiserikonographie’, 
27; Pls 2,6,7,8,9 – London, British Museum; Pl. 3 – Paris, Cabinet des  JdI (1995), pl. 11; Pl. 21 – after E. Coche de la Ferté, Le camée Rothschild. 
médailles: photo A. Mastrocinque; Pl. 4 – after S. Michel, Bunte Steine –  Un chef d’oeuvre du IVe siècle après J.-C., Paris, 1957, pls 2, 6; Pl. 23 – after 
Dunkle Bildern: ‘Magische Gemmen’, Munich, 2001, pl. 24; Pl. 5 – I.  M.-L. Vollenweider and M. Avisseau-Broustet, Camées et intailles. Tome 
Welner, ‘Aeskulapius és Hygieiát ábrázoló gemma Lenyomatával  II. Les portraits romains du Cabinet des médailles, Paris, 2003, pls 134–5; 
díszített edény Aquincumból (un vase orné de l’empreinte d’une  Pl. 24 – after Le trésor de la Sainte-Chapelle (exh. cat., Paris), Paris, 
gemme représentant Esculape et Hygie trouvé à Aquincum)’,  2001, no. 56, pl. 2.
Archaeologiai Értesító 92 (1965), 42–4, fig. 1. 
viii | ‘Gems of Heaven’
Illustration Acknowledgements
T. Gesztelyi: The Re-use and Re-interpretation of Gemstones in  Engraved Gems of the Romans, London, 1971, no. 586, 589; Pl. 13 – after 
Medieval Hungary M. Schlüter, G. Platz-Horster and P. Zazoff, Antiken Gemmen in 
Pl. 1 – after A. Tocik, Altmagyarische Gräberfelder in der  Deutschen Sammlungen, Band IV, Hannover Kestner-Museum, Hamburg 
Südwestslowakei, Bratislava, 1968, Taf. LV/17; Pl. 2 – after M. Hlatky, A  Museum für Kunst und Gewerbe, Weisbaden, 1975, no. 1599; Pl. 14 – after 
magyar gyűrű (The Hungarian Ring), Budapest, 1938, 48; Pls  E. Zwierlein-Diehl, Die Antiken Gemmen des Kunsthistorischen 
3,4,5,8,13,14 – National Archives of Hungary (Magyar Országos  Museums in Wien III, Munich, 1991, no. 1730; Pl. 15 – courtesy of Drs 
Levéltár), Budapest; Pl. 6 – http://www.corvina.oszk.hu/images/ Matteo and Maria Campagnolo, Musée d’art et d’histoire, Geneva; Pls 
CoatofArms/cimerhunyadi02.jpg& imgrefurl; Pl. 7 – Archives of  16,18,23 – after E. Zwierlein-Diehl, Glaspasten im Martin-von-Wagner 
County Hajdú-Bihar, Debrecen; Pl. 9 – after E. Brandt and E. Schmidt  Museum der Universität Würzburg, Munich, 1986, nos 13, 794, 793; Pl. 
(eds), Antike Gemmen in deutschen Sammlungen I 2, Staatliche  19 – Naples, Museo Archeologico Nazionale; Pl. 22 – private collection; 
Münzsammlung München, Munich, 1970, no. 1467; Pl. 10 – after J.  Pls 24,31 – after M.-L. Vollenweider and M. Avisseau-Broustet, Camées 
Jerney, Magyar Történelmi Tár 2, Budapest, 1855, 155, fig. 17; Pl. 11 –  et intailles. Tome II : Les portraits romains du Cabinet des Médailles: 
Debrecen, Déri Múzeum; Pl. 12 – after E. Zwierlein-Diehl, Antike  catalogue raisonné, Paris, 2003, no. 206; Pl. 25 – © Christie’s Images/
Gemmen und ihr Nachleben, Berlin–New York, 2007, pl. 899; Pl. 15 –  The Bridgeman Art Library; Pls 29,30 – after R. Delbrueck, Antike 
Budapest, St Stephen Basilica, http://bin.sulinet.hu/ikep/2004/05/ Porphyrwerke, Berlin and Leipzig, 1932, pls 57b,58a; Pls 33,34,36,37 – 
sztjobb.jpg&imgrefurl; Pl. 16 – Komárom, Klapka György Múzeum.  after J.M.C. Toynbee, Roman Medallions, New York, 1944, pls XV,5–6, 
XLIV,1 and XLVI,5; 64; Pl. 38 – after A.B. Marsden, ‘Some sing of 
R. Gordon: Archaeologies of Magical Gems Alexander and some of Hercules: artistic echoes of Hercules and 
Pls 1–11,13–14 – London, British Museum; Pl. 12 – after Preisendanz  Alexander the Great on coins and medallions, ad 260–269’, in L. 
PGM II 166 (Gordon, n. 59).  Gilmour (ed.), Pagans and Christians – from Antiquity to the Middle 
Ages, BAR International Series 1610, 2007, 66; Pl. 40 – Paris, 
H. Guiraud: Intaglios and Cameos from Gaul in the 3rd and 4th  Bibliothèque nationale; Pls 41,42,43 – Oxford, Ashmolean Museum; Pl. 
Centuries AD 44 – after In Pursuit of the Absolute. Art of the Ancient World from the 
Pl. 1 – Y. Deslandes; Pl. 2 – Badisches Landesmuseum Karlsruhe; Pl. 3 –  George Ortiz Collection, Royal Academy of Arts, London, 20 January–6 
S. Prost, service archéologique municipal; Pls 4–7 – author.  April 1994, London, 1994, no. 238; Pl. 46 – Internet. 
F. Harley-McGowan: The Constanza Carnelian and the Development of  A. Mastrocinque: The Colours of Magical Gems
Crucifixion Iconography in Late Antiquity Pl. 1 – Rome, private collection; photo: author; Pls 2,10 – author; Pl. 3 – 
Pls 1,6,8 – London, British Museum; Pl. 2 – Rome, German  courtesy Civic Museum of Verona; photo: author; Pls 4,5,8,12 – London, 
Archaeological Institute; Pl. 3 – author; Pl. 4 – after R. Garrucci, Storia  British Museum; Pls 6,9,11 – courtesy of Cabinet des médailles, Paris; 
della arte Cristiana nei primi otto secoli della chiesa, 6 vols., Prato, 1880,  photos: author; Pl. 7 – after: medicalimages.allrefer.com. 
vol. 6, tav. 483; Pl. 5 – photo by Robin Jensen; Pl. 7 – Rome, Museo 
Palatino, Inv. 381403; Pl. 9 – after J. Spier, Picturing the Bible; the  S. Michel-von Dungern: Studies on Magical Amulets in the British 
Earliest Christian Art, New York and London, 2008, 227, fig. 1. Museum 
Pl. 1 – Hamburg, Collection W. Skoluda; photo: author; Pls 
G. Kornbluth: Roman Intaglios Oddly Set: the Transformative Power of  2,3,4,5,6,9,14 – London, British Museum; Pl. 7 – Diagram ‘Dodekaoros’ 
the Metalwork Mount after Teukros and the ‘Daressy Zodiac’: author; Pls 8,10 – Hamburg, 
Pls 1,2,3,4,6,7,8,11,12,13,14,15,16,18,19,20,21 © Author; Pl. 5 – Abbey of  Collection E. Sossidi; photo: author; Pls 11,12 – Malibu, The J.P. Getty 
St-Maurice d’Agaune; Pls 9,10 –Foto Marburg; Pl. 17 – Oxford,  Museum; Pl. 13 – Ann Arbor, Kelsey Museum; photo: author; Pl. 15 – 
Ashmolean Museum; Pl. 22 – after C. Boulanger, Le Cimetière  Kansas City, Linda Hall Library (For copyright: PDF). 
FrancoMérovingien et Carolingien de Marchélepot (Somme): Étude sur 
l’Origine de l’Art Barbare, Paris 1909; Pl. 23,24 – after W. Veeck, Die  H. Molesworth and M. Henig: Love and Passion: Personal Cameos in 
Alamannen in Württemberg (Germanische Denkmäler der  Late Antiquity
Völkerwanderungszeit.1), Berlin 1931, pl. G8. Pls 1–27 – courtesy Derek J. Content Collection
A. Krug: The Belgrade Cameo Á.M. Nagy: Magical Gems and Classical Archaeology
 Pls 1,5 – Belgrade, Narodni Muzej u Beograd; Pls 2,3,8 – plaster cast,  Pl. 1 – St Petersburg, The State Hermitage Museum; photo: V. 
Akademisches Kunstmuseum, Bonn; photos © author; digital  Terebenin, L. Kheifets, Y. Molodkovets; Pls 2,3,5 – London, British 
processing: Hans Rupprecht Goette; Pl. 4 –drawing Gisela Höhn,  Museum; Pls 4,8, – St Petersburg, The State Hermitage Museum; 
Bonn; digital processing: Hans Rupprecht Goette; Pls 6,7 – photos ©  photos: A. Rázsó; Pl. 6 – after M. Maaskant-Kleibrink, Catalogue of the 
author; digital processing: Hans Rupprecht Goette; Pls 9,11 – digital  Engraved Gems in the Royal Coin Cabinet, The Hague, The Hague, 1978, 
processing: Hans Rupprecht Goette; Pl. 10 – London, British Museum. 355, no. 1119; Pl. 7 – courtesy of M. Avisseau-Broustet, Cabinet des 
médailles, Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris; photo: A. Mastrocinque 
K. Lapatin: ‘Grylloi’ (d.r.); Pl. 11:1 – courtesy of B. Shipman, Taubman Medical Library, Ann 
Pls 1,12–16,22–35,37, Addendum – author after historical sources noted  Arbor; photo: B. Shipman; Pl. 11:2 – Budapest, Museum of Fine Arts; 
in the captions; Pls 2,4,9,10,18–21,36 – London, British Museum; Pls  photo: L. Mátyus; Pl. 11:3 – after S. Michel, Bunte Steine – Dunkle Bildern: 
3,5–8 – Courtesy of the Michael C. Carlos Museum of Emory University:  ’Mágische Gemmen’, Munich, 2001, pl. 15,89; Pl. 12 – courtesy of M. 
photos by Bruce M. White, 2010; Pl. 11 – courtesy of the Derek J. Content  Torbágyi, Hungarian National Museum, Budapest; photo: A. Dabasi.
Collection; Pl. 17 – courtesy of the Beazley Archive, Oxford.
B. Nardelli: Late Roman Gems from Tilurium in Croatia
Ç. Lüle: Non-destructive Gemmological Tests for the Identification of  Pls 1–7,9,11–13 – © T. Sesel, Archaeological Museum of Split; Pls 8,10 – 
Ancient Gems © I. Prpa Stojanac, Archaeological Museum of Split.
Pl. 1 – Elina Ratcheva; Pl. 2 – Stuart Robertson; Pl. 3 – Lisbet Thoresen; 
Pl. 4 – author. O. Peleg-Barkat and Y. Tepper: Engraved Gems from Sites with a 
Military Presence in Roman Palestine: the Cases of Legio and Aelia 
A. Marsden: Gods or Mortals – Images on Imperial Portrait Gems,  Capitolina
Medallions and Coins in the 3rd Century AD Pls 1–13 – © Yotam Tepper
Pls 1,2,3,12,17,21,27,28,32,35,39,45 – London, British Museum; Pl. 4 – 
private collection; Pl. 5 – Colchester Castle Museum; Pl. 6 – private  G. Platz-Horster: Seals in Transition: their Change of Function and 
collection; Pl. 7 – Berlin, Antikensammlung; Pl. 8 – after L. Endrizzi  Value in Late Antiquity
and F. Marzatico (eds), Ori delle Alpi, Trento, 1997, no. 1183; Pl. 9 – after  Pl. 1 – Bonn, Rheinisches Landesmuseum, photo: S. Taubmann; Pl. 2 – 
O. Neverov, Antique Intaglios in the Hermitage Collection, Leningrad,  author; Pl. 3 – Stuttgart, Landesmuseum Württemberg: after L. 
1976, 79, no. 141; Pls 10,20 – after J. Tassie and E. Raspe, A Descriptive  Wamser, Die Römer zwischen Alpen und Nordmeer, Mainz, 2000, cat. 
Catalogue of a General Collection of Ancient and Modern Engraved Gems,  no. 141; Pl. 4 – London, British Museum; Pl. 5 – The J. Paul Getty 
Cameos and Intaglios, Taken from the Most Celebrated Cabinets in  Museum, Malibu, California, Inv. no. 83.AM.228.1-7; Pl. 6 – Krefeld, 
Europe; and Cast in Coloured Pastes, White Enamel, and Sulphur,  Museum Burg Linn: after R. Pirling, Römer und Franken am 
London, 1791, nos 12067, 12081; Pls 11,26 – after G.M.A. Richter,  Niederrhein. Burg Linn, Krefeld, Mainz, 1986, pl. 133.
‘Gems of Heaven’ | ix
Illustration Acknowledgements
H. Rambach: Reflections on Gems Depicting the Contest of Athena and  Nydegger (eds), Im Glanz der Götter und Heroen, Meisterwerke Antiker 
Poseidon  Glyptik aus der Stiftung Leo Merz, Mainz am Rhein, 2003, pl. 59; Pl. 28 – 
Pls 1,2 – Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici delle Province di  after M. Maaskant-Kleibrink, Catalogue of the Engraved Gems in the 
Napoli e Caserta; Pl. 3 – after H. Brunn, Denkmäler griechischer und  Royal Coin Cabinet, The Hague, The Hague, 1978, pl. 351; Pl. 32 – after 
römischer Skulptur); Pl. 4 – © Gemini auctions; Pls 5,6,26 – © Classical  http://www.settemuse.it/pittori_scultori_ europei/ matisse/1944
Numismatic Group; Pl. 7 – © LHS Numismatik; Pls 8,9,38 – © Beazley 
J. Spier: Late Antique and Early Christian Gems: Some Unpublished 
Archives; Pls 10,11,13,23,35 – London, British Museum; Pl. 12 – © 
Hanover, Kestner Museum; Pl. 14 – © Gisela Richter; Pls 17,31,33 – ©  Examples
Paris, Bibliothèque nationale; Pls 18,32,37 – © Vienna,  Pl. 1 – after Gorny & Mosch; Pls 2–8,11–14,16,17,19,21–26,28,31,32,34–
Kunsthistorisches Museum; Pl. 19 – © Erika Zwierlein-Diehl; Pls 20,21  37,41,50 – courtesy C.S. Collection, Munich; Pl. 9 – after Harlan J. Birk 
– © Geldmuseum, Utrecht; Pl. 22 – © RGZM T 74/2452–2453 (Ernst  Ltd; Pls 10,18,20,27,30,39,42,49,51,52 – private collection; Pls 15,29,43–
Künzl); Pl. 24 – © Heritage Auctions; Pl. 25 – © Bonn, Rheinische  46,53 – courtesy Derek. J. Content Collection; Pl. 33 – after 
Landesmuseum; Pls 26,27 – © Fritz Rudolf Künker GmbH & Co. KG; Pl.  Münzenhandlung Gerhard Hirsch; Pl. 38 – courtesy of Penelope Rogers 
28 – © Gorny & Mosch; Pl. 29 – © St Petersburg, Hermitage; Pl. 30– ©  and the Anglo-Saxon Laboratory; Pl. 40 – courtesy of Erika Zweirlein-
Jeffrey Spier; Pl. 34 – after N. Dacos, Il tesoro di Lorenzo il Magnifico. Le  Diehl; Pl. 47 – © Bengt Lundberg; Pl. 48 – after F. Althaus and M. 
gemme, Florence, 1973, pl. 81; Pl. 36 – © Genevra Kornbluth/Hadrien  Sutcliffe (eds), The Road to Byzantium, London, 2006, 165, no. 102; Pls 
Rambach; Pl. 39 – © Diana Scarisbrick, courtesy of Claudia Wagner.  54–56 – German eBay. 
G. Sena Chiesa: Myth Revisited: The Re-use of Mythological Cameos  L. Thoresen: A Case Study on Gemstone Origins: Chrysothrix, a Group 
and Intaglios in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages of Roman Magical Gems
Pl. 1 – after E. Zwierlein-Diehl, Magie der Steine. Die antike Prunk- Pls 1,2,4,8 – photomicrographs: John Koivula; Pl. 3 – author; Pl. 5 – 
kameen im Kunsthistorischen Museum, Vienna, 2008, pl. 39; Pls  Herbert Wiegandt; Pls 6,7 – Harold and Erica Van Pelt. 
2,3,4,5,7,10,12,21, – after G. Sena Chiesa (ed.), Gemme. Dalla corte 
E. Zwierlein-Diehl: Gem Portraits of Soldier-Emperors
imperiale alla corte celeste, Milan, 2002, folding page, pl. 1 on 19, pl. 3 on 
Pls 1,2,42 – Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum; Pls 3,6,25 – Martin-
23, pl. 3 on 31, pl. 49 on 201, pl. 2 on 44, pl. 36 on 210, pl. 37 on 210; Pl. 6 – 
von-Wagner-Museum der Universität Würzburg, photos: Isolde 
after Le trésor de Conques (exh. cat. Paris), Paris, 2001, pl. 15; Pl. 8 – after 
Luckert; Pls 4,5,33,43 – Munich, Staatliche Münzsammlung; Pls 7,12 – 
M.-L. Vollenweider and M. Avisseau-Broustet, Camées et intailles, Tome 
St Petersburg, Hermitage (after O. Neverov, ‘Concordia Augustorum’, 
II, Les Portraits romains du Cabinet des Médailles. Catalogue raisonné, 
Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Universität Rostock 19 (1970), 605–12, 
Paris, 2003, pl. 132; Pl. 9 – after B. Nardelli, I cammei del Museo 
pl. 28, 6 and O. Neverov, Antique Intaglios in the Hermitage Collection, 
Archeologico Nazionale di Venezia (Collezioni e Musei Archeologici del 
Leningrad, 1976, no. 141); Pls 8,9 – Berlin, Staatliche Museen, 
Veneto, 43), Rome, 1999, no. 16; Pls 11,18 – London, British Museum; Pl. 
Antikensammlung, photos: Isolde Luckert (Pl. 8), Johannes Laurentius 
13 – after http://museoarcheologiconazionale.campaniabeniculturali.
(Pl. 9, Lippert2 II 1767, 847); Pls 10,11 – Międzyrzecz (Poland), Museum 
it/itinerari-tematici/galleria-di-immagini; Pl. 14 – after http://
(after M. Ruxerówa, ‘Gemma Międrzyzecka’, Fontes archaeologici 
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Affrescoromano-_eracle_ed_
Posnanienses 8–9 (1957–8), 443–7, figs 2–3); Pl. 13 – London, Victoria & 
onfale_-_area_vesuviana.JPG; Pls 15,16 – after M.-L. Vollenweider, Die 
Albert Museum, Tassie & Raspe No. 12081, photo: Claudia Wagner; Pls 
Steinschneidekunst und ihre Künstler in spätrepublikanischer und 
14,15,31,32 – Cologne, Römisch-Germanisches Museum, photos: 
augusteischer Zeit, Baden-Baden, 1966, pls 37.5, 68.7; Pl. 17 – after P. 
author (Pl. 14), Jutta Schubert (Pl. 15), Museum (Pls 31,32); Pls 16,19,20 
Zanker and B.C. Ewald, Mit Mythen leben. Die Bildenwelt der römischen 
– Collection of Derek J. Content; Pls 17,24,37,38,41 – Bonn, 
Sarkophagen, Munich, 2004, pl. 125; Pl. 19 – after C. Rizzardi, L. 
Akademisches Kunstmuseum, Cades Auswahl Bonn cl. 13 III 31, 407, 
Martini, C. Muscolino and E. Cristoferi (eds), Avori bizantini e 
414, 423, 424, 432, photos: Jutta Schubert; Pls 18, 27,40 – Paris, Cabinet 
medioevali nel Museo Nazionale di Ravenna, Ravenna, pl. 1; Pl. 20 – after 
des médailles (Pl. 40 after M.-L. Vollenweider and M. Avisseau-
J. Spier, Late Antique and Early Christian Gems, Weisbaden, 2007, pl. 
Broustet, Camées et intailles. II Les Portraits romains du Cabinet des 
572; Pls 22,23 – after E. Zwierlein-Diehl, Die Gemmen und Kameen des 
médailles, Paris, 2003, no. 258, pl. 133); Pls 21,22,28,29,30,34,35,36,37 – 
Dreikönigenschreines. Der Dreikönigenschrein im Kölner Dom, Band I.1 
London, The British Museum, photos: Genevra Kornbluth (Pls 
(Denkmäler Deutscher Kunst. Die großen Reliquienschreine des 
21,28,30,34,36), Jutta Schubert (Pls 22,29,35); Pl. 23 – Baltimore, 
Mittelalters, Studien zum Kölner Dom, 5), eds A. Wolff and R. Lauer, 
Walters Art Museum; Pl. 26 – Naples, Museo Archeologico Nazionale 
Cologne, 1998, pls 8, 250; Pls 24,25,26,29,30,31 – after R. Nanni and 
(after U. Pannuti, La Collezione Glittica II, Rome, 1994, no. 214); Pl. 39 – 
M.C. Monaco, Leda, storia di un mito dalle origini a Leonardo, Firenze, 
Copenhagen, Thorvaldsens Museum.
2007, pls 10,14,16,22,53,59; Pl. 27 – after D. Willers and L. Raselli-
x | ‘Gems of Heaven’
Description:A thorough account of those gemstones which were engraved throughout antiquity and used as amulets and charms, focusing on the era circa 200 - 600 CE.