Table Of ContentFLAT-PANEL
DISPLAYS
AND CRTs
.0 x .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7
.9
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.8 .8
.7 .7
.6 .6
.5 .5
.4 .4
.3 .3
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The 1931 CrE (Commis ion International de I' clalrge) chromaticity diagram is u ed throughout the dj plays Indu try for
engineering and cientinc color characterization of em Is lve nd noncml Ive displays. The diagram in thl form with the color
regions and name as derived and revised In 1955 by K. L. Kelly of NBS (National Bureau of Standards) lind adapted as uch
as a t ndard by IA (Electronic Industrle ceiation) i called the Kelly Chart. The color rendjtion is an appro:dmotion of
the true colors becou e of the limitation In printer ink. ( ourte y of RCA, New Products Division, Lancaster, PA., and
Photo Re earch, Division of Kollmorgen, Burbank, CA.)
FLAT-PANEL
DISPLAYS
AND eRTs
Edited by
Lawrence E. Tannas, Jr.
~ VAN NOSTRAND REINHOLD COMPANY
~ ____ New York ____
Copyright © 1985 by Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Inc.
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1985
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 84 -11839
ISBN-13: 978-94-011-7064-2 e-ISBN-13: 978-94-011-7062-8
DOl: 10.1007/978-94-011-7062-8
All rights reserved. No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may
be reproduced or used in any form or by any means-graphic, electronic, or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or information storage
and retrieval systems-without permission of the publisher.
Manufactured in the United States of America
Published by Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Inc.
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Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Main entry under title:
Flat-panel displays and CRTs.
Includes index.
1. Information display systems. 2. Cathode-ray tubes.
I. Tannas, Jr., Lawrence E.
TK788216F53 1984 381.3819'532 84-11839
ISBN-13: 978-94-011-7064-2
PREFACE
Flat-Panel Displays and CRTs, a review of electronic information display devices, is the first sys
tematic and comprehensive coverage of the subject. It is intended to distill our wealth of knowledge
of flat-panel displays and CRTs from their beginnings to the present state of the art. Historical
perspective, theory of operation, and specific applications are all thoroughly covered.
The field of display engineering is a multidisciplined technical pursuit with the result that its
individual disciplines suffer from a lack of communications and limited perspective. Many previ
ously developed standards for, and general understanding of, one technology are often inappro
priate for another. Care has been taken here to document the old, incorporate the new, and
emphasize commonalities. Criteria for performance have been standardized to enable an expert in
one display technology, such as liquid crystals, to compare his device performance with that offered
by another technology, such as electroluminescence.
This book has been written with a second purpose in mind, to wit, to be the vehicle by means of
which a new scientist or engineer can be introduced into the display society. It is organized to be
tutorial for use in instructional situations. The first chapters begin with first principles and defini
tions; the middle chapters set out requirements and criteria; and the last chapters give a complete
description of each major technology.
Flat-Panel Displays and CRTs is primarily concerned with flat-panel displays. It is necessary to
discuss CRTs before one can properly understand flat-panel displays, however, and to this end
"The Challenge of the Cathode-Ray Tube" chapter has been included.
It is obvious why flat-panel-display technologists are so highly motivated. They all hope to find
the ideal replacement for one of the last vestiges of the vacuum-tube age, the CRT. This common
goal has created the flat-panel display fraternity, and the fever of their enterprise sometimes takes
on the air of an olympic challenge. For all that, this book is intended to be a scientific document
on flat-panel displays and CRTs rather than a prophecy. In fact, no position is taken as to how or
when, if ever, the flat-panel display will become dominant. The reader can make his own prognos
tications. I, myself, believe that in due time each of the flat-panel display technologies will find a
niche of its own in the marketplace alongside the CRT. Perhaps the need for replacing the CRT is
no longer the problem, since we continue to find both flat-panel displays and CRTs all around us.
If the time should ever come when the flat panel displaces the CRT in all market areas, it will only
be when the performance and cost considerations justify it. As of now they don't, but some day
they may.
This book is about display devices. The display device includes the image-generating medium,
electronic drive, faceplate, bezel, power supplies, and so forth, all of which are parts of the display
hardware system. They can be analyzed, characterized, and qualified without regard to the eye
brain system, input signal source, or software. In fact, it makes no difference to the software
whether the display is a flat panel or a CRT so long as it can respond to the data presented. Similarly,
it makes no difference how the image is generated so long as it meets the output performance
requirements. A description of the image-quality-performance measures for quantifying the output
performance is given in detail. The chapter on the visual system is included as a prerequisite to the
chapter on image qUality. It should be noted that the more complex aspects of human factors,
pattern recognition, and information theory are not covered.
v
vi PREFACE
Each chapter is meant to stand alone, yet as an integral part of the whole, and the whole is
intended to be a complete but concise statement of the state of the art of display devices as well as
a source for future research and development ideas and study topics. A thorough survey of the
published art is presented, along with extensive references. Completeness of coverage is taken to be
a more important goal than exhaustive detail, and the identification of classifications and funda
mental principles is considered to be more important than the inclusion of all exceptions.
I first conceived of this book in 1976 when it became apparent that Sol Sherr's first book,
Fundamentals of Display System Design, and H. R. "Lux" Luxenberg and Rudolph Kuehn's book,
Display Systems Engineering, were becoming outdated. It didn't really get going, however, until
1980 when I formulated the UCLA Extension class called "Flat-Panel Displays," later changed to
"Flat-Panel and CRT Display Technologies." Each of the instructors for the class wrote a technology
chapter; I wrote the introductory chapters and the chapter on electroluminescence; and Harry
Snyder joined us later to write the chapters on the visual system and image quality. The encour
agement from senior members of our field such as Irving Reingold and Benjamin Kazan was of
great help to me. I wish to further acknowledge the word processing, proofreading, indexing,
coordination support, and continued encouragement of my dear wife Carol.
As you read this book, keep in mind that even as it went to press the displays industry was
experiencing exciting growth and changing technology. Continuous change of this sort was antic
ipated at its conception, and hence the emphasis on fundamentals that can be used in analyzing
and evaluating new developments. It may be expected that advances in technology will continue to
fill the pages of the many publications that serve the field. The real challenge for flat-panel and
CRT display technologies is to satisfy this ever-expanding and seemingly insatiable marketplace.
It might be helpful, in conclusion, to give a chapter-by-chapter breakdown of the contents of
this book and to acknowledge the efforts of all concerned.
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION, by Lawrence E. Tannas, Jr., MS, Displays Consultant, Orange,
California.
This chapter provides an historical review of all displays and a detailed technical discussion that
.;ategorizes and classifies them. It further attempts to put flat-panel displays and CRTs into relative
perspective. It also offers a summary of photometry and colorimetry, includes definitions and
nomenclature for all displays, and introduces the concepts of pixel, display array, font, duty
factor, pixel contrast ratio, and matrix-addressing.
I would like to express my appreciation for the many helpful suggestions from my fellow
chapter authors, associates, and students that were made during the many revisions of this chapter.
Chapter 2. SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS, by Lawrence E. Tannas, Jr.
An analysis of the display as a part of the overall system is undertaken in this chapter. The over
all display requirements are represented in system, installation, and function classifications. The
display brightness ratio concept is introduced, and pixel contrast ratio and visual angle are com
bined to form the universal visual image space with the display detectability surface. The chapter
also presents a second universal metric called display ambient performance, which is a plot of the
performance measures of display brightness ratio and pixel contrast ratio, along with the power
penalty factor, against the display disturbance factor, ambient illumination. Each display subsys
tem is discussed, and standards and their sources are reviewed. Modern spectroradiometric equip
ment appropriate for an up-to-date displays photometry laboratory is shown.
I am indebted to Alan Sobel for his careful reading of, and helpful comments on, a draft of
this chapter.
Chapter 3. THE VISUAL SYSTEM-CAPABILITIESANDLIMITATIONS, by Harry L.Snyder,
Ph.D., Department of Industrial Engineering and Operations Research, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia.
PREFACE vii
This chapter gives an overall review of the features of the human eye and the metrics for charac
terizing the way in which the eye-brain system interprets a display image. It discusses spatial and
temporal capabilities in detail and introduces the concepts of modulation, contrast threshold
function, and color vision.
Dr. Snyder wishes to acknowledge the valuable review of this chapter by H. Lee Task.
Chapter 4. IMAGE QUALITY: MEASURES AND VISUAL PERFORMANCE, by Harry L.
Snyder.
This chapter offers a detailed discussion of the science for evaluating the display image. It
introduces the concept of modulation transfer function and uses it in the spatial frequency domain
to compare the various image quality metrics.
Dr. Snyder acknowledges the careful reviews of this chapter by H. Lee Task and Robert J.
Beaton.
Chapter 5. FLAT-PANEL DISPLAY DESIGN ISSUES, by Lawrence E. Tannas, Jr.
This chapter elaborates on the primary issues of power efficiency, addressability, duty factor,
gray scale, color, and cost, all of which affect the performance and ultimate utility of flat-panel
displays, and presents a detailed discussion of intrinsic and extrinsic electronic addressing for both
emissive and nonemissive displays. It also gives a review of the MOS, TFT, and Si electronic drivers.
I am indebted to Alan Sobel for his careful reading of this chapter and to Thomas Engibous
and Andras I. Lakatos for authoring the electronic sections.
Chapter 6. THE CHALLENGE OF THE CATHODE-RA Y TUBE, by Norman H. Lehrer, MS,
Consultant, Cupertino, California.
This chapter provides a complete tutorial review of the fundamentals of the CRT, covering
history, basic design, the incorporation of color, electron optics, performance, phosphors, resolu
tion and contrast, life, applications, and drive circuits. It includes an overall summary of CRT
performance that can serve as the basis for a comparison of the CRT with flat-panel displays.
Mr. Lehrer would like to express his appreciation to the Watkins-Johnson Co., Inc., for their
support in the initial preparation of this chapter, which took place while he was an employee.
Grateful acknowledgement is also made for their approval of its publication as well as for the
approval of Rank Electronic Tubes, which acquired the cathode-ray tube operation of the Watkins
Johnson Co. Special thanks are due Gus Carroll, who not only read the manuscript but provided
several key suggestions for improvements.
Chapter 7. FLAT CATHODE-RAY TUBE DISPLAYS, by Walter F. Goede, MS, Northrop
Electronics Division, Northrop, Hawthorne, California.
In this book, the position is taken that the flat-CRT technology is separate from that of the
regular CRTs while acknowledging that both technologies have much in common. This chapter
discusses the motivations and goals of the flat CRT and then continues with the history, basic
designs, cathodes, beam control, luminance enhancement, phosphor screens, vacuum envelope,
and examples.
Mr. Goede is indebted to Thomas Credelle, James Smith, and Tadashi Nakamura for the careful
review and many valuable suggestions. He would like to thank Northrop Electronics for their
support.
Chapter 8. ELECTROLUMINESCENT DISPLA YS, by Lawrence E. Tannas, Jf.
EL displays have had a long and tortuous development cycle and are now finding application.
This chapter covers all aspects of the technology starting with a detailed history, theory of opera
tion, performance, fabrication techniques, failure modes, color, and ends with applications for ac,
dc, powder, and thin-mm EL.
The chapter benefited greatly from the detailed review and comments by Paul Alt and Elliott
Schlam, to whom I am indebted. I also wish to thank Aerojet ElectroSystems, my former employer,
viii PREFACE
for releasing the Aerojet data for this endeavor and completing much of the artwork, as well as my
former staff at Aerojet who performed the work herein accredited to Aerojet.
Chapter 9. LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE DISPLAYS, by M. George Craford, Ph.D., Optoelec
tronic Division, Hewlett-Packard, Palo Alto, California.
This chapter is devoted to the single crystal source of electroluminescence, called "LEDs" in
the displays industry. All aspects of LED displays are covered, including history, basic technology,
display devices, performance, materials, and processes.
Dr. Craford would like to thank Nick Holonyak, Jr., for his careful review of the entire chapter
and H. T. Groves, Walter Melnick, Neil A. Obright, Keith Burnette, Roland Haitz, and the Opto
electronic Applications staff at Hewlett-Packard for providing many of the figures.
Chapter 10. PLASMA DISPLAYS, by Larry F. Weber, Ph.D., Computer-based Education Re
search Laboratory, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois.
Plasma displays use the gas discharge light-generation phenomenon applied to a wide range of
products from small seven-segment indicators to very large graphic displays. This chapter starts
with a thorough treatment of the gas-discharge phenomenon and the history of plasma displays. It
then covers the structures, characteristics, fabrication methods and electronic addressing of the full
range of ac, dc, and hybrid devices available on the market, along with techniques for achieving
gray scale, color, and television.
Dr. Weber is grateful for the support of the Computer-based Education Research Lab of the
University of Illinois. The careful review and helpful comments of Thomas C. Maloney are warmly
appreciated.
Chapter 11. NONEMISSIVE DISPLA YS by P. Andrew Penz, Ph.D., Central Research Labora
tory, Texas Instruments, Dallas, Texas.
The predominant nonemissive display medium is liquid crystals-the primary focus of this
chapter. Nevertheless, the nonemissive technologies such as electrochromic, electrophoretic,
colloidal, electroactive, and electromechanical are also discussed. The chapter begins with the
optical theory of nonemissive displays and continues with history, definitions, and acronyms, as
well as all phases of LC displays including construction, alignment, addressing, etc.
Dr. Penz appreciates the helpful suggestions of Allan Kmetz and the careful reading of Milo R.
Johnson.
L. E. TANNAs. JR.
CONTENTS
Preface / v 2. System Requirements,
L. E. Tannas, Jr. / 31
2.1 Introduction / 31
1. Introduction, L. E. Tannas, Jr. / 1
2.2 System Classification / 32
2.3 Display Installation
Classification / 33
1.1 History of Electronics for
2.4 Display Functional
Displays / 1
Classification / 33
1.2 Electronic Displays / 4
2.5 Systems Constraints / 33
1.2.1 Introduction /4
2.5.1 Performance / 34
1.2.2 Display Categories / 5
2.5.2 System Design / 39
1.2.3 Display Technique / 5
2.5.3 Environmental
1.2.4 Font / 7
Testing /39
1.2.5 The CRT Challenge /10
2.5.4 Standards / 40
1.2.6 Definition of Flat-Panel
2.6 Display Subsystems /41
Displays / 11
2.6.1 Faceplate / 41
1.2.7 Flat CRTs / 12
Structural Shield / 42
1.3 Display Classifications / 12
Radiation Shield / 42
1.3.1 Flat-Panel Display
Electromagnetic
Classifica tions / 14
Interference
1.4 Display Nomenclature / 16
Shield /43
1.4.1 Electroluminescence vs.
First-Surface
Luminescence / 16
Etching /43
1.4.2 Gas Discharge, or Plasma
Antireflective
Panel/17
Coating /43
1.4.3 Cathodoluminescence vs.
Filtering / 44
Vacuum
Optical Focusing / 46
Fluorescence / 17
2.6.2 Bezel / 46
1.5 Classification Nomenclature / 18
2.6.3 Interactors / 46
1.6 Picture Element or Pixel / 18
1.7 Display Array / 21 2.6.4 Electronics / 47
1.7.1 Duty Factor / 22 2.7 Transillumination / 49
1.7.2 Pixel Contrast Ratio /23 2.8 Photometry / 49
1.8 Addressing / 24 2.8.1 Photometric
1.8.1 Direct Addressing / 24 Measurements / 49
1.8.2 Scan Addressing / 24 2.8.2 Photometric Units / 51
1.8.3 Grid Addressing / 25 References / 53
1.8.4 Shift Addressing / 25
1.8.5 Matrix Addressing /26
3. The Visual System: Capabilities and
1.9 Display Device Development / 26
Limitations, Harry L. Snyder / 54
1.10 Multidiscipline / 27
1.11 Technology Impetus / 28 3.1 Introduction / 54
1.12 Conclusion f 30 3.2 Anatomy of the Visual
References / 30 System / 54
ix
