Fighting Back: Human Adaptations in Marginal Environments

13 Pages·2012·7.06 MB·English

T I N
tidies of the fragility of the natural envi-
ronment often accord a prime role to
Sh uman activities such as habitat destruc-
tion. liind cover change, and “overuse” of
hiotic resources. One of the factors most
closely associated with environmental degra-
dation in the developing world is poverty. A
wcll-known analysis suggests that the poor are
I‘ound disproportionately in the dryland, high-
land. and rainforest zones of the tropics, sev- sustain their livelihoods, and fight back
ern1 01’ which have been identified by other against institutionalized poverty through a
rewarchers as “critical” in terms of the quality process of innovation, technological choice,
ol’ their natural resource base and the stresses and social organization.* Their experiences
l>li\cctlu pon them by human uses.’ may offer important lessons for environmental
These perceptive analyses offer a picture of management in general.
spiriiling degradation, growing poverty, and In designing policies to combat resource
the diqdacement of people to accommodate &gradation and poverty, it is important to fakc
ccononiic growth and population increase. a fresh look at these experiences and the ways
‘I’his arlicle, by contrast, examines cases that in which (to use the language of development
Itxl lo i\ different conclusion. While aggregate professionals) “sustainable livelihoods” are
o r rcgiond statistics present a depressing pic- maintained. Too often, presuppositions have
ttirc, i t i s quite evident that at the local level come to dominate our thinking about degrdi\-
Illi\ny hnd users and communities have been tion and pressure on resources when there is
ahlo to rcduoe their environmental impacts, evidence for alternative views. In one well-
! H U MAN ADAPTATIONS I N MARGINAL
b y S i m o n B a t t e r b u r y a n d T i m F o r s y t h
known study, for example, usually thought to damage the
Michael Mortimore, Mary Tiff- environment by accelerating
en. and Francis Gichuki de- soil exhaustion and thereby
scribed how a combination of leading to further deforestation.
soil conservation and new eco- (Increasing population may
nomic activities in the Ma- place additional pressure on the
chakos region of Kenya has land.)7Y et research has shown
resulted in greater well-being that the Wola are able to main-
with less damage to the land.’ tain soil fertility by constructing
Similarly, in Nepal, where ana- mounds of soil using rotting
lysts have decried the destruc- vegetation as compost. They
tive nature of the frequent land- call these mounds ern hul, or
slides. research has shown that “bone gardens,” because of
many farmers actually antici- their bonelike durability. An-
pate these landslides, using other technique they employ is
them to refresh degraded soils to plant a variety of crops
and build terraces? (sweet potato, taro, wild spin-
These instances are examples ach, and sugar cane) during the
of uduptution. In the context of first few years of cultivation and
developing countries, an adap- just sweet potato thereafter. The
tation is a strategy adopted to soil mounds provide a rich sup-
reduce the impacts of environ- ply of carbon and nitrogen for
mental or social change on the mixed crops, while sweet
local resources.s Although potato can thrive with far fewer
there are many examples of nutrients.B
successful adaptations, their The Mien (Yao) people liv-
Constructing diguettes to control erosion in Burkinu Fuso.
role in avoiding environmental ing in the highlands of northern
degradation is still unclear. Thailand offer a similar exam-
Critics have suggested that at some have on their land and other natural ple. The Mien immigrated from China
point local strategies may be weakened resources. (Because this simple defin- and Laos, where they practiced shifting
or even reversed by social and eco- ition masks decades of research into cultivation, earlier in this century. His-
nomic changes. Furthermore, they the origins of adaptations and their torically, repeated exhaustion of the soil
argue, some adaptations may only pro- impacts on local livelihoods and envi- forced them to relocate their villages
tect certain resources or benefit only ronmental management, a more exten- every 10 to 20 years. Since coming 10
some members of a community.“ One sive discussion is presented in the box Thailand, however, they have remained
must be wary, therefore, of saying that on page 9). The following examples settled for more than 50 years-more
adaptations are successful just because illustrate the nature of the adaptations than enough time for their soil to lose
particular adaptive practices have cer- in three key land-use situations in its fertility.9 They have avoided this
tain positive effects. Societies often developing countries. threat by concentrating cultivation on
contain divisions based on gender, the flatter slopes rather than the steeper
Agriculture in Highland Areas
caste, or other factors that limit adap- ones where erosion is more likely.
tive success to certain individuals or Those who cultivate the steep slopes Indeed, since the creation of a volun-
households or that render that success found in highland areas are especially tary protected forest area near one vil-
short-lived. For this reason, it is impor- vulnerable to declining soil fertility and lage in the 1970s, the areas of closed
tant to examine how adaptations come accelerating erosion. However, certain forest have almost tripled. Clearly,
about and why they succeed or fail. adaptations may reduce the impact of Mien farmers have perceived the poten-
such farming on soil resources. The tial threat of erosion and adapted their
Wola people, who inhabit the southern farming practices to overcome it.In
Defining Adaptations
highlands of Papua New Guinea, offer
Management of Dryland Soils
Environmental adaptations include one interesting example. The Wola are
measures such as technological inno- sedentary agriculturists who grow In the Sahel area of West Africa,
vations, changes in land-use practices, crops on slopes cleared of the native farmers face a variety of problems
and economic diversification that forests by means of slash-and-burn resulting from the vagaries of the cli-
reduce the impacts that local people techniques. This type of agriculture is mate, particularly the fact that short-
ti ENVIRONMENT JUIY/AUGUST1 999
ages of' rainfall have occurred at irreg- example. Burkina Faso faces some adopted such practices as creating
ular intervals since the 1970s. Drought serious challenges. Its population is compost pits to enhance soil fertility
threatens both soil and water conser- growing at the relatively rapid rate of and building diguetres (semiperme-
vation, and increasing population and about 2.6 percent per year, and the able lines of stone placed at right
political uncertainty provide further yields of rain-fed cereals and pulses angles to the slope) to prevent erosion.
challenges to farmers. Nonetheless, (crops such as peas and beans) are International development agencies
the region offers examples of success- unpredictable due to frequent droughts have aided these adaptive strategies by
fu l adaptation. and wide variations in soil quality. To promoting innovations in both the
The Mossi, who inhabit the central maintain the integrity of their soil design and the implementation of con-
plain of Burkina Faso, are one such under such conditions, the Mossi have servation techniques."
R E T H I N KI N G A D A P T A T I o N s
hc ieriii duprurinri holds a central l ids . Adaptive strategies and processes livelihood systems than simple adaptittion
place in the study of the relations both involve a variety of major and minor to environmental stresses.'
T between people and the natural envi- changes to local practices and social organ-
rtininttnt. An c i r ly proponent of the term ization. Either may be called adaptations,
wah an anthrtrpologist who showed as and they may occur over a variety of time
ciirly as 1937 how particular cultural pat- scales. In the words of another anthropolo- I . J . Steward. T h r i i n i~C'u/lri irr ChcriiKe: Tlw
lcrns emerged from the constraints and gist, the "particular circumstances of geog- MeIh0ddok)gy i f hfu/riliacur Ei~olrrtiiJirI Urhana. 111 :
possihilitics afforded by that environ- raphy. demography, technology, and histo- University of Illinois Preas. 1955).
iiirnt.l He identified a cultural "core" ry" result in a "splendid variety of cultural 2. R. A. Rappoport. I'igsjiir rhr Anw\rorv: Kirrrctl I J I
wilhin strieties that allows them to adopt values, religion, kinship systems, and polit- rhr Ecokfigy if'u New GuinriJ l'ei~p/ee, nlarged editioii
iittw lrchnologies and survival strategies ical structures" that may lead to a great (New Haven. Conn.: Yale University Press. 1984).
for meeting essential needs such as food range of livelihood ~trategiesA.~d aptations m3.n m1e. nBr uanso Hn.u Rzr.r Wrd . (KNaetwcb Y. aonrkd: GG.u Pi.l lWiinhl ilPe.r eTshsl. , 1D9i v7i8-.
prriduc~ionI. n 197 1, another scholar put offer sufficient benefits to be adopted on a reprint. 1993): R. W. Kate$. "Natural Hazards in
lo r th the tnorc radical idea that adapta- long-term basis, but as anthropologists and Human Ecological Perspective," E(wnumic C;riigru
tioiis serve to ensure human survival geographers remind us, it is not helpful to phy 41 (1971):4 38: G. F. White, C1iuii.r ofAi~ustiiirrir
xgainst various biophysical threats within sre them merely as relatively straightfor- olo f FGlewogdrsa,p Rhyes. eUurncivhe Prsaiptye ro 4f 3C (hCichaicgaog. o1: 9D6e4p)a: nainiidc nPi.
the ecosystem (in keeping with this the- ward changes made in response to environ- Porter, "Cultural Ecology," in N. J . Smelser and P. H
h i s . he focused on optimal foraging strate- mental stress. Not only have people been Baites (Amstenlam: Pergainon Presa. forthcoming ).
gic\, ix.. ways to obtain required nutri- severed from their resource base through 4. R. Netting, Smullholdrrs. H i ~ i i ~ h i ~filrrirhir ~
iiiiii for the least effort).' At the same displacement or hazards, there are adapta- Families und rhe Ecology o / lrrrlwsii,c .4,~rI i~ihi i t*
liinc. gcographers were identifying a tions that have negative impacts elsewhere (Palo Alto, Calif.: Stanford Uniwrsity Prehs. 1993).
r;ingc (if "adjustments" made by individ- or in relation to other processes (soil con- AI .p pSreoea cha ltsoo SHhi.f tiCngo nAkglrinic.u l"luArne ," ETtrhuiino.ewcrc~irloiopiic.ia Ol /
uals to deal with natural disasters. These servation up-slope can disadvantage farm- the New Rirk Acudemv ~IJS' c i r~ ic~7~1. \( IOSJi: 133;
adjustments were based on several fac- ers lower down, for example). and c. Gwrtz. Agriculrund /iiw/uriotr; The Prrii.rj\ i
ttirh. including their perception of haz- Researchers adopting an adaptation o] ARricu/ruru/ Choiige in / n ~ l i ~ n ~ ~ .(Hr iciri kelcy.
; t h . the nature of their personal contacts framework have illustrated the ability of Calif.: University of California Prcch. IOhBi.
with them. and their personalities.3 local groups to assert their autonomy c5u. ltuPr. aBl Partoldelutc. t"ioAnd:'u pArnivrieu Suul aHleig,ireus , iln! /AP eIaIsaI n/ tI IA~pIr~i- I J / ~ J ~ ~
Tiday, researchers generally make a dis- from economic or political change, and 9 ( 1980): $45; R. Ellen. Etivimirirnrrir, Siihsi.srrril~r,
linclion hctween adaptive strategies and ingenious adaptations and innovations and Sysrem: The Eciikogy of Smiill-Scirlt~.% Ji'ilt/ biir-
atkiplive p m ~ s s r s .I n this context, an form a part of this process.' Much can be muliiirts (Cambridge. 1J.K.: Cambridge Univcrsity
;aind apinlidviev istliuraatlc g10y ipse irlm parancetnictlayl dcehcainsigoen tbhye ltaecmticesd, pfarortmic utlhaerl yc airne faugl rastruiadny soyfs tseumchs. PDWrmeesusls gA. hfrli:1c 9uF8 a2(rC)m:u emarsnb,dr i FdMgucii.i iUrM.icK,o~.r.n: tCi nisdnin iLhrker.\i rdrAgrci/ i;Urip~nriiiviiw#o arii t1iry0i
prc~luctivra ctivities in which he or she is Nonetheless, the identification and mea- Press, 1989).
engaged (such as selling livestock during surement of adaptations-and assessment 6. R. B. Thomus. "The Evolutioii (if tiuiiiaii Adillit-
driitight years or diversifying into new of their sustainability-is not possible ability Paradigms: Towards a Riolugy nf Pcivrrty," in
crops ha.serl on uwssments of climatic and without long-term observation or refer- A. H. Goodman and T. I-. Lenthermiin. 8rii/diii,q u
ccoiwinic conditions). Such strategies are ence to the multiple constraints (e.g., N,spewec fBivieosc ounlt uHruuml uStvi nRrhireilsiisg:y (PAiilnirni rA.rrthl-oErr,i iMtiriJcihn.i:c l.Il 'tivii--
i i iosl iinprtant for poor communities seek- exploitation, forced migration, and com- versity of Michigan Press). 13.
ing l'i)od .security in the face of resource mercial systems that disadvantage the 7. 0.C oomes, "The Concept 0 1 Ailtiptiltinn in ('til-
wiircily o r rapid socioeconomic change. rural poor) that can impede the process of tural Ecology: A Criticiil Appriiisal nf Functional and
hi ;idaptivc process, on the other hand, adaptation.6 While people frequently Strniegic Interpretation\" (miiiieo. Departnicnt nf
cntitilr ;I hiratcgic. long-term decision such overcome such constraints, one must bear Ganedo gSr.a pDhayv. iUesn.i vAedrusiptyru cbifle W 1i.sici~oneslihn-inMiiald.~Cia:i iopiit.i ,q1 0ixw7l)r.
;I\ unilrrtaliing long-distance migration or in mind there are many more components Ffiiid lnsr iwiry in rhe Muliirri Sirhd (Chicheatt.r.
ctinhirucling terraces on steep agricultural to the maintenance of sustainable local U.K.:J ohn Wiley & Sons, 1996).
-
VOILJM4I 1 NLIMHhC K ENVIRONMEN I
A Jklrl in northern Thailand. Special precautions, such as cultivating only the lower slopes, are needed to make agriculture sustainrihlr
in 1iioiiiit~iiiiiii4.tse rrain.
A long-standing adaptive process in crops by raising more goats and sheep, many communities actually strive to
this region is for farmers to migrate mixing farming with business activi- restrict such destruction.
from the drier northern areas to Burki- ties, engaging in paid agricultural In the forest-savanna transition zone
na’s cities (or to the neighboring coun- labor, and migrating to the cities for of Guinea in West Africa, scientisls
try of CBte d’ Ivoire) for wage employ- short-term wage employment.13 and policymakers have blamed the
ment during the dry season, when they These adaptations have reduced the Kissi and Kuranko people for the
do not work on the land. Most Mossi potential impact of drought or politico- deforestation that has occurred during
communities have a significant num- economic uncertainties by diversifying the last 200 years. Officials claim, for
ber of people living elsewhere for the sources of income, promoting land instance, that some 800 patches of for-
shorter or longer periods and sending conservation, and ensuring a more est land in Kissidougou province rep-
back remittances to their families. secure food supply. By and large, sus- resent relics of a larger forest that once
Migration has allowed farmers to tainable farming practices have evolved covered this entire area. However,
increase their options for income gen- without widespread development assis- research into historical land-cover pat-
eration while reducing the pressures tance or support from the Nigerian gov- terns and local forestry practices sug-
on the land and local food supply.12 ernment or nongovernmental organiza- gests that the Kissi and Kuranko aclu-
The Kano region of northern Niger- tions, though in some cases local ally created these patches on relatively
ia provides a parallel case of dryland organizations have evolved to help treeless savannas through a painstak-
adoptation. Despite population densi- farmers make the transition. ing process of altering fire and soil
tie\ in excess of 200 people per square conditions (i.e., targeted burning to
Forest Protection and Regrowth
kilometer, farmers have maintained reduce the risk of fire and increase soil
high crop yields through a process of In tropical forest environments, fertility, gardening to promote tree
agricultural intensification. As part of local people face a variety of threats to growth, and the tethering of animals).
thi \ process, they employ distinct cere- their livelihoods from logging, the Indeed, this research indicates that
al genotypes suited to different climat- influx of new settlers, land clearance some 7 1 percent of the 38 villages bur-
ic conditions. Many farmers have also for extensive agriculture, the degrada- veyed were founded in areas of swan-
returned to the once-common practice tion of forest species used for food, na and encouraged forest growth
of collecting wild seeds in addition to and construction. Commonly, local around them.14
obtaining seeds from standard com- cultivators are blamed for the destruc- One of the farmers’ key strategies ha\
mercial sources. During dry years, tion of the forests in which they dwell. been to promote the growth of the
they wpplement their income from Research, however, suggests that “silk-cotton’’ tree and other fast-grow-
JLJIY/ALIG1L 9~0~cT)
h b l e 1. Examples of environmental adaptations 1
Zone Environmental Adaptation Adaptation Livelihood Environmental
threats strategies processes impacts implications
Highlands
Papua New Guinea Soil mounds Crop Greater food
specialization security
Erosion, declining Upland agriculture
soil fertility, shorter not as degrading
fallow periods as commonly
believed
Thailand Avoiding steep Sedentarization Long-term
slopes cultivation
Drylands
Burkina Faso Soil and water Economic More sources
conservation diversification, of income
(digueftes) migration
Drought, erosion, Drought has less
declining soil fertility severe
consequences
Nigeria Crop diversification Integrated crop Less vulnerability
and livestock to drought,
management economic shocks
Forests
Guinea Forest “islands” Long-term shaping Greater access
of landscape to forest resources
Deforestation, Local people not
loss of biodiversity to blame for
deforestation:
local practices may
increase biodiversity
Thailand Relict emergents Long-term alteration More useful
of species species
SOURCE: Simon Batterbury and Tim Forsyth.
irig species that increase forest area, been blamed for increasing the rate of Thailand for centuries, and they are
provide wood, reduce the risk of fire, deforestation and degrading forest known for their ability to rotate culti-
and once helped conceal villages from quality. Research among the Lawa and vation sites to protect soil fertility and
attackers. As part of this process, graz- Karen ethnic groups, however, sug- forest diversity.
ing cattle have been used to reduce the gests that the accusations are overstat- Table 1 above sumnarizes the case
tire risk by removing flammable grass- ed. Farmers among these groups have studies presented in this section. As a
es. Villagers have also fostered the adopted the practice of leaving “relict group, they indicate that local people
growth of tree species that provide tree emergents” (specially selected trees) do indeed adopt land practices that
crops and medicines by transplanting on cultivation sites after burning the reduce the negative impacts on natural
wild trees or planting suckers or cut- remaining vegetation to make way for resources and, in some cases, they
ting$. This example reveals how vil- crops. As a result of leaving some even act to restore or increase those
lagers may organize to protect trees, the forest grows back more resources.
resources not only through the short- quickly, the trees are taller, and there is
term use of tire but also through the more biodiversity than would other-
Explaining Adaptations
long-term process of nurturing forest wise be the case. These forests may
ihlands. So-called “natural” landscapes even be more beneficial to the local The examples given above call into
in this region may in fact be largely cre- people than those stemming from gov- question some general assumptions
ated by humans. ernment reforestation schemes.lS The about the links between poverty and
I n Thailand, shifting cultivators have Lawa and Karen have lived in northern (continued on pngp 25)
VOILIMI 41 NUMRF6R ENVIRONMENT 11
ing “vulnerability context” (as deter- For example, in the case of the Mossi
Fighting Back nuned by environmental, social, and farmers, it was the combination of in-
(c~)iztirzurd,ft~,pmu ge I I) economic processes) and how soci- digenous adaptive strategies to pre-
eties draw upon resources of different serve soil and water with the technical
environmental degradation. Instead of types (their so-called natural, social, knowledge supplied by international
poverty leading inexorably to more and economic capital) to do so. A lo- NGOs and development organizations
degradation and vice versa, they sug- cal livelihood system is composed of that led to the widespread construction
gest that local adaptations may both people who pursue adaptive behaviors of diguettes in Burkina Faso in the last
enhance livelihoods and protect natur- to create and sustain that system. But two decades. Soil and water conserva-
al resources. In addition, they remind these individuals are not isolated adap- tion has changed the resilience of
us that there are long-term adaptive tors-they are instead enmeshed in a local food systems and in most cases
processes at work in societies that number of transforming processes, increased food security as well as
should be viewed not in mechanical, such as the workings of social and reduced vulnerability. The communi-
evolutionary terms but as organized economic institutions, government ty’s capital assets have been altered in
and considered responses to local bodies, and other organizations. It is the process, with its natural capital
problems. For these observations to be the interaction between structures, being expanded via improved fields
of value, however, it is important to processes, and adaptations that gives and its social capital via working
explain exactly how adaptations work. rise to specific livelihood outcomes. together on conservation projects.
Researchers have sought to explain
adaptations in a variety of ways. As dis-
cussed in the box on page 9, one key I llable 2. Local adaptation strategies
. -
distinction is that between adaptive
stralegies and adaptive processes. Adaptation strategy Components Arbiters af change
Strategies are short-term practices
adopted in response to sudden shocks or Land-use intensification Labor or capital intensification Population density
Crop-livestock integration Technological inputs
difficulties in accessing resources.
Conservation Investment resources
Processes are longer-term transitions Tree husbandry Knowledge of new
[hat change the relationship of a society practices
Value of products
to its resource base. Table 2 on this page
Enabling climate and
summarizes how adaptive strategies are physical environment
themselves responses to long-term
Economic diversification Monetization Knowledge of financial
processes such as population growth
Income diversification opportunities
and the diversification of rural incomes. Mobility/migration Urbanization
Each transition has several compo- Markets
Transportation
nents. For example, a common adap-
Finance
tive response to land pressures is to Time and labor
adopt conservation measures such as availability
Individual assessments
those undertaken in Burkina Faso and
of risk
Nigeria. Whether such measures will Social networks
be adopted (and the form that they Displacement
lntrahousehold
take) depends on several “arbiters of
dynamics
change,” i nc 1u ding the know ledge
farmers have, the biophysical environ- Institutional change Changes in law or custom Institutional reform
Social differentiation Changes in wealth
ment (particularly rainfall and soil
A new division of labor distribution
conditions), and the availability of Development interventions Gender and age roles
labor. For this reason, each transition Governmental incentives or Education
frameworks Availability of finance
will be relatively unique, reflecting the
interactions between people, their Demographic transition Fertility Mortality
institutions. their political economy, Development interventions Fertility preferences
Migration
and their environment.
Perceptions of poverty
Figure I on page 26 presents a basic or wealth
model of adaptation showing how
adaptive strategies and processes
SOURCE: Based on M. Mortimore. Roots in the African Dust: Sustaining the Sub-Saharan Drylands
respond to and influence the underly- (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 184.
ENVlKONMtNI 2 5
The examples presented in the pre- Guinea and Thailand, knowledge of from Burkina Faso to CGte d'lvoire to
vious section are admittedly optimistic biophysical resources acquired over supplement their incomes. In wmt'
about human potential and creativity. many years has been employed in cases, the migrants have established
They show, for example, that the Wola shaping forest growth to local needs. social networks at their destinations to
of Papua New Guinea have utilized In these instances, adaptive strate- reduce the economic and social risk\
centuries of experimentation with gies (such as the creation of soil of seasonal migration. Figure 2 011
growing crops to increase their food mounds or forest islands) blend with page 28 shows a basic model of adap-
security under conditions of a growing adaptive processes (such as more per- tive processes as they occur over larg-
population.Ih Similarly, in Burkina manent cultivation or diversifying er and larger temporal and spatial
Faso and Nigeria, traditional knowl- income sources). In addition, adaptive scales, highlighting the fact that this
edge has included an understanding of processes often involve the spatial means moving beyond local hocial,
crop and livestock diversification, expansion of activities away from the economic, and natural resources into
along with the shorter-term possibili- locality to reduce local resource pres- increasingly wider systems. This i \
ties offered by migration.l7 And in sures, as in the migration of people particularly appropriate for dryland
Figure 1. A framework for sustainable rural livelihoods
Livelihood
i outcomes
........................................
~ Technological
V
counltneexrta bility sTtraunctsuforrems ainngd aAndda ptations dacnihvdaen regscieotsyn iolnem aidci ng to
processes strategies
Local
e
anvdi rsooncmiale nctoanl text StrucGtuorveesr nment, Wtnceollm-bce ilnegv els
Short-term shocks state actors Resilience
and hazards Private sector Food security
Long-term or and markets Adaptive Resource
episodic change Kin and ethnic strategies exploittation
networks patterns
NGO sector Adaptive Institutional
Institutions, processes dynamics
rules. sanction: Flows of
pcoplc and
Processes capital
Policies
including
Capital assets development
assistance
Incentives
Physical
Human ...........................................
Economic
-
........
I Livelihood system
:.....>
SOURCES: Adapted from D. Carney, ed., Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: What Contribution Can We MakeY (London: Depart-
ment for International Development, 1998); and I. Scoones, Sustainable Rurul Livelihoods: A Framework fu r Ana/vsi.s, IDS
Working Paper 72 (Brighton, U.K.: Institute of Development Studies, 1998).
communities. where diversification is
the most common response to crop
failure or drought.
The Down Side to Adaptation
Despite the benefits conferred by
adaptative strategies and processes,
researchers are increasingly pointing
to their potentially negative impacts on
some individuals. In particular, critics
have suggested that the growing spa-
tial and teniporal scales of adaptations
may mean that only some resources
are protected and only some members
of the community benefit. Indeed, the
word community may be inappropriate
i n this context because it suggests that
there is a unity among a diverse group
of individuals who may also be divid-
ed along age, gender, caste, ethnic, and
class lines. A i w u o plunt nursery in Alto Beni, Bolivia. The,fuilure to produce COL‘OU iri thu
conventionul way led to u new j i ~ c u so n high-value orgunic coim.
In the Sahel region, for example,
many of thosc who migrate in search of
work fail to find it, to the great detri- works throughout the country were Perhaps the most famous debate
ment of those left behind. (Nearly all seriously disrupted and many people about the merits of adaptation concerns
of the migrants are men trying to sup- lost access to the resources they the Akamba people of the Machakos
port their families.IX) Those who do depend on to earn a living. Large num- region of Kenya. According to one
lind employment may become part of bers ended up in refugee camps in classic study, their efforts to increase
highly competitive labor or product neighboring countries, heavily depen- the food supply while preserving the
inarkets, with only small gains (or even dent on international assistance for integrity of their land have turned out
losses) to show for their efforts.lYE co- mere survival.*’ very positively. In the authors’ memo-
nomic diversification has also led to The drought that afflicted Sudan rable phrase, adaptations such as mar-
increased environmental degradation. from 1983 to 1985, causing approxi- ket trading and sustained agricultural
I n northern Thailand, for instance, mately 100,000 people to die of star- intensification on terraced land have
some relatively well off Mien farmers vation, offers another important exam- enabled “more people” to be supported
have begun selling souvenirs to tourists ple. Many of the victims were people with “less erosion” and better conser-
ilnd using the income to expand the with poorly diversified livelihood sys- vation of biophysical resources.’l
size of their farms by hiring poorer tems. Dependent on crops and lacking Other researchers have identified
l‘llrniers as agricultural labor. The latter, stocks of food or animals, they readily two main problems with this opti-
however, have continued to crop their succumbed to famine. Two other fac- mistic scenario, however. The first is
land frequently, thus increasing the net tors greatly exacerbated the situation, that the effects on individual liveli-
pressure on farming resources. Little is however. First, the government was hoods may be concealed by the usc of
being done to help those who need poorly prepared for the drought and aggregate data.’5 Using such data
extra income the most.*” failed to distribute available food to implies that all community members
Adaptations themselves may also be those who needed it.22 Second, inter- have experienced the same level o f
fragile and easily abandoned during nal fighting over the last 20 years (the economic success or failure. In fact, i t
times of severe social or economic government is waging a war against appears that there are great differences
unrest. The flare-up of ethnic violence ethnically distinct people in the south- among men, women, and children and
in Rwanda in 1994-96 offers a good em part of the country) has left 1.3 between the rich and the poor in this
example. In this conflict, more than 1 million people dead and several mil- community. Anthropological research
million people were killed and 2.9 lion homeless, largely precluding any has revealed that certain Akamba have
million displaced from their homes. adaptations people would otherwise experienced alienation from the land,
As a result, social and economic net- have made.2’ limits on social mobility, and con-
ENVIKONMFNT 27