Factors influencing young bystanders' decisions to intervene when witnessing cyber-aggression

262 Pages·2017·3 MB·English

Edith Cowan University
Research Online
Theses: Doctorates and Masters Theses
2016
Factors influencing young bystanders' decisions to
intervene when witnessing cyber-aggression: A
mixed methods exploration
Lisa Jodi Patterson
Edith Cowan University
Recommended Citation
Patterson, L. J. (2016).Factors influencing young bystanders' decisions to intervene when witnessing cyber-aggression: A mixed methods
exploration. Retrieved from https://ro.ecu.edu.au/theses/1939
This Thesis is posted at Research Online.
https://ro.ecu.edu.au/theses/1939
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Factors Influencing Young Bystanders' Decisions to Intervene
When Witnessing Cyber-Aggression: A Mixed Methods
Exploration

Lisa Jodi Patterson
Bachelor of Psychology, Master of Psychology, Master of Public Health

A thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy,
Department of Psychology, School of Arts and Humanities,
Edith Cowan University

October 2016

Statements

1.1. Declaration
I certify that to the best of my knowledge and belief this thesis does not:
I. Incorporate without acknowledgment any material previously submitted for a
degree or diploma in any institution of higher degree;
II. Contain any material previously published or written by another person except
where due reference is made in the text of the thesis;
III. Contain any defamatory material; or
IV. Contain data that has not been collected in a manner consistent with ethics
approval.

1.2. Statement of originality
I certify that the data and content of this thesis are my own work carried out
between 30 July 2012 and 30 July 2016 under the supervision of Professor Alfred Allan and
Professor Donna Cross. Further, the intellectual content of this thesis is the product of my
own work and that all assistance and sources have been appropriately acknowledged.

1.3. Use of thesis
This copy is the property of Edith Cowan University. However, the literary rights of
the author must also be respected. If any passage from this thesis is quoted or closely
paraphrased in a paper or written work prepared by the user, the source of the passage
must be acknowledged in the work. If the user desires to publish a paper or written work
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containing passages copied or closely paraphrased from this thesis, which passages would in
total constitute an infringing copy for the purposes of the Copyright Act, he or she must first
obtain the written permission of the author to do so.

1.4. Statement of contribution to jointly-published work
As research rarely happens in isolation, I have chosen of my own volition to
recognise my supervisors as co-authors in the development and review of each of the

manuscripts published as part of my thesis. I am the first author on each of the four
main publications and undertook the majority of the work for each, and as such I am
responsible for the theoretical conception, analysis and discussion of each.

1.5. Statement of contribution by others Lisa Patterson
Alfred Allan
Professor Allan is Professor of Psychology in the School of Arts and Humanities, Edith
Cowan University. He is my primary supervisor with whom I met once per week and he
provided direction and comprehensive feedback on all the various publications and
components of this thesis.
Alfred Allen
Donna Cross
Professor Cross is Principal Research Fellow at the Telethon Kids Institute, The
University of Western Australia. She provided advice on initial research methodology and
qualitative instrument design, and feedback on the final drafts of all the various publications
and components of this thesis.
Donna Cross
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Acknowledgements

Thank you to my supervisors Professors Alfred Allan and Donna Cross for their
support and guidance throughout my PhD.

A big, heartfelt thank you to my family who have been so supportive and
encouraging throughout this whole time. To my husband, Owen, who kept me going when I
was ready to give up and provided timely, quality advice when I needed it. To my children,
Ariel and Sage, who put up with me when I was stressed or had work to do. I love you all so
very much and look forward to spending wonderful times together in the years to come
post PhD.

Also thank you to my parents, Deb and Ian, for believing in me always and caring for
Ariel and Sage during school holidays when I had a deadline to meet.

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Abstract

With the modern proliferation of computers, the Internet and smart phones,
adolescents are at increased risk of cyber-aggression: negative, harmful behaviour
expressed through electronic means and aimed at an individual (or group of individuals).
Cyber-aggression can have serious consequences for the social, emotional and physical
health of both targets and perpetrators. Some experts recommend tackling cyber-
aggression using the strategies applied to face-to-face forms of aggression and bullying in
school environments. One such strategy is to encourage peer bystanders to intervene in a
positive way, which has been demonstrated to influence both the duration and severity of
bullying episodes in the school environment. However, cyber-aggression has some unique
characteristics that differentiate it from school-based aggression such as bullying, including
the potential for perpetrator and bystander anonymity, the rapid dissemination of material,
and the permanence of information placed on the Internet. It therefore remains uncertain
whether these unique characteristics make the wholesale adoption of face-to-face school-
based bystander interventions inappropriate for the online environment. This thesis sought
to clarify the key influences on young adolescent bystanders’ behaviour in the online
environment to determine the extent to which it differs to that in the school environment.

An exploratory mixed methods design was undertaken involving three phases.
Phase One adopted a qualitative, phenomenological approach using in-depth interviews
with 24 adolescents in Grades 8–10, to explore their perception of young bystanders’
attitudes and likely behaviours when witnessing cyber-aggression. In-depth vignette-based
interviews were undertaken to explore two key research questions: (a) What factors do
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young adolescents think influence bystanders’ decisions to intervene when witnessing
cyber-aggression? and (b) What do young adolescents perceive as differences in bystanders’
responses to peer aggression in the online versus offline (school) environments? A thematic
analysis identified key themes arising from Phase One. Firstly, bystander behaviours in the
online environment are perceived to be influenced by the relationship of the bystander to
the perpetrator and target, with bystanders more likely to take action when they have a
close relationship with one of these individuals. Relationships also assisted online
bystanders to understand the context of the situation, the perceived severity of the incident
and therefore the need, or otherwise, to seek adult assistance. An important difference
between online and school environments is that the online environment was perceived to
be lacking in clearly established rules, authority figures and formal reporting mechanisms
when witnessing aggressive behaviour. In addition, when witnessing online transgressions
young adolescent bystanders are more hesitant and likely to ignore or avoid intervening.
This is due, in part, to difficulties they experience trying to ascertain perpetrator intentions
in the absence of non-verbal cues.

Phase Two sought to quantitatively confirm the themes arising from Phase One and
involved the development of a quantitative measure and use of vignettes to manipulate
major themes with a larger sample of adolescents in Grades 9–10 (n=292). Statistical
analysis confirmed that bystander helping behaviours were more likely when the target was
a close friend and when perceived harm to the target was high. Bystanders also reported
being less likely to approach teachers or publicly defend targets in the online environment
compared to the school environment. In addition, female bystanders were more likely to
intervene, regardless of the online or school environment.
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Phase Three evolved from the results of the first two phases and involved a
systematic review to explore the role of moral disengagement in bystander behaviours,
highlighting future research directions and implications for online interventions. In this
phase of the research, existing literature describing bystanders’ use of moral disengagement
mechanisms when witnessing online and school bullying was appraised. A systematic
review of empirical literature published over the last 25 years revealed a scarcity of research
addressing bystanders’ use of moral disengagement in face-to-face environments, and no
studies examining this issue in the online environment when witnessing bullying within the
search parameters. In school environments, moral disengagement was found to be more
likely in boys and increasing with age; affected by individuals’ histories, empathy, and self-
efficacy; negatively associated with pro-social bystander behaviours; and highly influenced
by socio-environmental factors, such as school culture.

Collectively the three phases suggest that programs designed to encourage positive online
bystander behaviours can be similar to face-to-face approaches, but also need to
compensate for some aspects unique to the online environment. Such programs should
consider the impact of relationships on young people’s active defending behaviours, their
inhibitions surrounding public displays of bystander behaviour of any kind, and the lack of
adult presence in the online environment. Strategies should sensitise adolescents to the
potential harm of cyber-aggression and assist them to counter the tendency to morally
disengage in the online environment. This might be achieved through programs designed to
develop pro-social skills in online bystanders, to enable young people to intervene as peer
supporters when they become aware of cyber-aggression.
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