Table Of Contentfrom Chicano/a to Xicana/o:
C h i c a n o / a
Francisco Rios
and because many Xicana/o educators see as noteworthy counter examples. In fact,
their identity and ideology both similar to I see these two identities/ideologies and
but different from Chicano/a educators of historical moments as falling upon lines
an earlier generation, pedagogical pursuits of differential possibilities and variations
for activism are equally likely to be differ- (Sandoval, 2000).
ent. In sum, this article intends to move Take, for example, the question of
from the politics of identity to the politics of identity. There are many kinds of Chi-
critical thinking, from a distinctly Mexican cano/a identities evident in these terms:
American version of (“old school”) Chican- American, Americano, Mexican American,
ismo to a more contemporary (“la nueva Hispanic, Latino, vato, cholo, lowrider,
onda”) Xicanismo. gangsta, gran vato, etc. In fact, the Chi-
In this article—a combination of I wish to acknowledge that most of cano/a “homies” series1 (while needing to be
personal narrative mixed with concep-
these ideas are inspired by the lessons I troubled out) provide a broad perspective
tual ponderings—I seek to explore the
have been taught by the many people who on all the ways one can “be” a Chicano/a.
development of a continuum of identities,
have influenced my ways of looking at the And these identities shift. As Guillermo
which range from Chicano/a to Xicana/o.
world as I seek to make sense of my own Gómez-Peña (Mendieta & Gómez-Peña,
The former is rooted in the Civil Rights
experiences. These include the consejos de 2001) relates, ethnic identification is both
Movement of the 1960s and 1970s, while
las mujeres (my mother, my grandmothers, strategic and contextual.
the latter has its roots in the transnational,
and my sisters, angeles todas). It’s rooted For example, sometimes when I’m
globalized, and neoliberal policies of the
in the confianza of my father and those, arguing the democratic imperative to
early years of the 21st Century.
too many to mention, who’ve mentored me schooling for social justice, I call on my
I wish to highlight how these two
throughout my life. It’s fostered by the re- “American” identity to create disequilibri-
identity movements came out of (and, in a
speto of my children, my students, and my um among those who have narrow-minded
reciprocal way, influenced) the particular
colleagues/peers but also the respeto I have notions of what it means to be American.
social and political moments of their times
for them. It’s inspired by the buen ejemplos In my time on a Fulbright in Chile, I called
but also how each has implications for
I have for those teachers and community upon my Americano identity to highlight
identity, ideology and issues, and imagina-
activists and scholars (most notably, for my desire for alliances with all the Latin-
tion toward the development of a critical
this essay, the work of Franquiz, Gomez- American people that I was privileged
consciousness. I also intend to extend the
Peña, and Urrietta) whose work I admire to encounter. I’m Latino in the mid-west
argument to how these identities, ideologies
from both close in and from a distance. where intercultural collaborations with
and issues, and imaginations serve as a
As mentioned, I intend to juxtapose Cubanos, Puertoriquenos, y Dominicanos
frame for the kinds of praxis one can engage
the birth of the Chicano/a movement with are essential for political empowerment.
in when one is committed to social justice.
the contemporary rise of a new Xicanismo. I’m Chicano when I want to highlight
Because identity and positionality
In doing so, I wish to highlight important my political otherness. And each of these
profoundly impact how one teaches for
differences and similarities of these two identities, indeed, are very complex.
multicultural education (Bennett, 2001),
historical moments, looking all the while To reiterate, my intention here is to
at what we learn about a critical pedagogy offer some broad generalizations which
toward praxis. I acknowledge at the outset are more conceptual then real but which
Francisco Rios is a professor
that some of the comments made herein have instructive value nonetheless. The
in the Department of Educational Studies
are generalities about these two identi- many ways one can be Chicano/a-Xicana/o
of the College of Education
ties and socio-political moments. Thus, it abound; we would do well to affirm these
at the University of Wyoming,
is important to also recognize differences variations.
Laramie, Wyoming.
MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION
from Chicano/a to Xicana/o:
Critical Activist Teaching Revisited
Xicana
/o
I begin with each moment, the Chi-
cano/a movement and then the nuevo
Xicanismo, discuss (for each) their broader
social, political, and economic context,
and then identify central issues relative
to identity, ideology, issues, and imagina-
workers’ struggles and Cesar Chavez’s this marginalization) in the pursuit of a
tion, and finally detail the critical think-
non-violent activism were important to the broader Chicano identity.
ing during each period (see Figure 1). I
rise of the Chicano/a movement.
intend to bring these two movements to
But it was also a time where political Ideology & Issues
life by sharing two narratives, two stories,
movement, while slow, was at least lean-
which highlight much of the conceptual Chicano/a cultural nationalism was
ing progressive (pushed as it was by the
arguments that I’m advancing. In doing the ideology of the day. That is, there was
Civil Rights Movement and the protests
so, I hope to illuminate where the Mexican explicit rhetoric around the desire to retake
in communities of color). Voting rights acts
American community has come, where it’s the southwestern part of the United States,
and affirmative action legislation were
going, what “works,” and what productive pointing back to the historical land mass
being passed and enacted, and court case
perspectives will carry us forward through called Atzlan. Connected with this nation-
victories around bilingual education and
the struggle for self-determination. alism was the idea that Mexican Ameri-
against discrimination in housing were
cans were neither Mexican nor American
changing the racist “business as usual”
Chicano/a but were, instead, a unique sociocultural
discrimination that marked the day.
group/citizenry with a specific and unique
There was an overture made toward
The Chicano/a movement had its history, culture, and language; hence, the
an agenda of equity to counteract past
inception before the 1960s but its birth term Chicano/a came to be affiliated with
discrimination and oppression. Equity
is often traced back to the Chicano Youth this unique social-cultural grouping as well
means a recognition that people who were
Conference held in Denver in 1969 (Acu- as the political (nationalist) ideology that
down needed a hand up: affirmative action
ña, 2003). The 1960s and 1970s was a time was being forged.
in employment and education, bilingual
of outright and undeniable oppression: The Chicano/a community had many
education, and other civil rights initiatives
signs read, “Mexicans and dogs not wel- issues it had to confront. In education,
came to life (not without challenges from
comed” while discrimination in housing, these issues included the need for a more
the mainstream, to be sure).
employment, education, and voting was culturally and linguistically responsive
This then sets the backdrop for both
explicit and rampant. Chicanos/as and approach to schooling (both Chicano/a
the birth of the Chicano/a movement but
their organizations, rooted as they were Studies and bilingual education served as
also the ways in which the Chicano/a move-
within the nest of the local community, two specific programmatic demands). The
ment was able to influence the context.
operated largely on the outside of, and in desire for political self-determination was
opposition to, institutional systems and made manifest most by the advance of the
Identity
the dominant society. La Raza Unida party (Garcia, 1990). There
Politically, the focus was on the For Chicanos/as, there was a keen was activism centered around addressing
national economy and national security focus on the development of a distinctly the rights of farmworkers and asserting
spurred by international tensions and the political identity. Its focus, however, was historical land rights (most notably in
Cold War. The hot war, Vietnam, was in full limited: identity was centered in race and New Mexico). All of this was on top of the
action, as was the impact of an oil boycott ethnicity with strong male overtones.2 Vietnam War, with its significant numbers
and rise of inflation. The broader Civil Importantly, women were playing a criti- of Chicano/a soldiers who fought for this
Rights Movement had been going on for a cal role within the movimiento but their nation only to return to a homeland char-
little over a decade; importantly, the farm role was marginalized (while contesting acterized by racial discrimination.
SUMMER 2008
Imagination3 A Chicano Narrative the line, marched downtown, shouted “We
want Chicano studies now,” went to the
Critical thinking was marked by I went to a high school which had a
capital to listen to political speeches, ate
identifying and honoring as positive all student composition that was 80% Chi-
beans and tortillas, and went home.
things Chicano/a—historically, socially, cano/a (interestingly, today, it is nearly 95%
The school’s funding drops. Soon, we
and culturally—with little public critique Chicano/a—so much for the integration of
have Chicano/a studies classes being of-
by Chicanos/as of other Chicanos/as and schools with “all deliberate speed”). And
fered.
things “Chicano/a.” It included critiquing there were very few Chicano teachers and
What’s next?
the master narrative upon which much of no Chicano studies classes. We learned
The school had just repainted the
the nation was built and offering a coun- that the district used the student atten-
lunchroom. On the back wall of the lunch-
ter-narrative, a counter story, one where dance rates of third period to determine
room, they put up a picture of a big hotdog
Chicanos/as were present, visible, and school funding levels. We figured that if
and hamburger.
important. It was marked by a narrow un- we weren’t in school at that moment, the
Blow out!
derstanding of Chicanismo, best described school received less money. So we decided
We got up, walked past policemen,
as Chicano-centric. to “blow out” (that is, walk out of the school)
marched downtown, shouted “We want
Advocacy and action were set against at the beginning of third period until the
taco now” (that little Taco Bell Chihuahua
“the system” and all it represented. This school hired a teacher who could teach us
had nothing on us!), went to the capital,
was possible because there were very Chicano studies.
listened to political speeches, ate beans
few Chicanos/as who worked within the As third period came around, we heard
and tortillas, and went home.
system. Therefore, much of the activity “blow out” in the halls. Almost all of 80% of
Within days, a big taco appears along-
happened outside of the system, in its oppo- the students walked out of school, marched
side the hotdog and hamburger and they
sition. Protests as general acts of civil dis- down town, shouted “We want Chicano
even gave us another wall to produce a
obedience were met with physical violence teachers now,” went to the park in front of
student-designed mural in keeping with
(the great whitewashing of the civil Rights the capital, listened to political speeches,
the mural wall art movement that was
Movement is that it was not understood went to another park to eat beans and
sweeping across the Southwest.
as a violent time: resistance was met with tortillas (these were, after all, organized
Against this was the backdrop of al-
violence and people were being murdered protests), and then went home.
ternative, community-based projects and
and losing their lives) (Murray & Menkart, All of a sudden, a new Chicano teacher
activities aimed at creating a more vibrant
2003). But these protests were critical for appears.
community. This included educational pro-
the political gains that were being made So we have a new Chicano teacher
gramming. My first two “education” jobs
(as described earlier). but no Chicano/a studies classes being of-
as teaching assistants were instructive
As I mentioned at the beginning of this fered.
of what was happening in the community
article, I want to detail personal experi- So, again, third period, “blow out” is
relative to schooling. The first was at the
ences, different moments within my own being shouted in the halls. This time as
West Side Youth Center which enacted an
life, to breath life into how this actually I walked out of school, I see in front of
alternative middle-school program for early
looked for me. In this first moment, I was us police cars, police dogs, and a line of
adolescent youth who had been kicked out
a young Chicanito growing up on Denver’s policemen on bull horns telling us to stop.
of the Denver Public Schools. This was, to
Westside in the late 1960s. I walked slowly past them, joined the
be sure, a very challenging experience, but
throngs of activists on the other side of
we went at the work with a great sense of
purpose, hope, and commitment.
The second was La Academia del
Figure 1 Barrio. It was a K-6 summer education
A Conceptual Model of Chicana/o and Xicano/a Identity program where Chicano/a history was
taught, math was taught using the Mayan
counting system, and where Chicano/a art
Critical Consciousness and Chicano/a folklore dancing were part
of this alternative school’s attempt as seek-
ing a more cultural-connectedness. All the
Context Context
teachers and their aides were Chicano/a.
It was Chicano-riffic!
From these, I learned how schools
were both sites of assimilation and oppres-
sion but also possible sites of affirmation
and liberation.
Imagination
Xicana/o
Ideology
The context for the new Xicanismo is
situated in a historical moment of the dawn
Identity of the 21st Century. The political economy is
marked by globalization and the push for
the virtual unrestraint of ideas, products,
Chicanismo Xicanismo and cultures (with conditions, of course,
such that North Americans can go anywhere
MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION
but those wishing to come to North America nonetheless (Zamudio & Rios, 2007). Bo- Ideology and Issues
will soon have to scale a massive—real and nilla-Silva (2003) describes this as “racism
A much broader vision of social justice
symbolic—border fence). This globalization lite.” It has gone underground and lives in
and human rights best captures the new
is happening in the context of unequal re- White people’s more private worlds (Myers
Xicanismo. It is marked by a framework
lations of power so that we have to extend & Williamson, 2002).
where multiculturalism, alliance and co-
our language (and thereby our thinking)
alition building, and unity and justice are
to acknowledge that there are those in the Identity
guiding principles. The issues this new
privileged position of globalizers and those
Xicana/o,5 as described by Urrieta group face rest largely around language
who are being globalized.
(2004), marks important differences from and immigration, which have become prox-
Free market neoliberalism (what
Chicano/a identity. The new Xicanismo ies for race.
Edelsky [2006] calls “capitalism with the
works to recognize the multidimensional We know they’re proxies with the fol-
gloves off”) is running rampant with its
and intersecting nature of identities. lowing questions: when most people think
assumption that all that results of unre-
Gender, class, and sexual orientation are of “immigrants” what ethnic/racial group
strained capitalism is good, despite its role
recognized as salient differences that must comes to mind? And, when most people
in producing greater economic inequal-
be understood, addressed, and affirmed think of bilingual education, do they imag-
ity. Private enterprise and corporatist
within the Xicana/o community. But the ine the eight million students who speak
responses are sought to cure the social
new Xicanismo demands that their inter- Chinese who attend schools in the U.S. or
challenges of the day. This is evident in
secting elements are equally important do they think of Latinos?
privatizing and corporatizing schools and
(race/ethnicity AND gender, class and
their related services (curriculum, pedago-
sexual orientation). The new Xicanismo also Imagination
gies, programs, etc.) (Sleeter, 2007).
indicates the growth of a transnational di-
It’s also a moment absent a broader, We have come to a point where we
mension of what it means to be Xicana/o.
can finally honor the social, cultural, and
linguistic history of communities of color,
.... because many Xicana/o educators see their identity seeing these as assets (funds of knowledge;
see for example Yosso, 2005) especially as
and ideology both similar to but different from Chicano/a
we have come to see how these commu-
educators of an earlier generation, pedagogical pursuits nity values help Xicanas/os to persist. For
Xicanas/os, these have been identified by
for activism are equally likely to be different ...
Franquiz and Salazar (2004) as the consejos,
confianza, respeto and buen ejemplo which
provide guidance and nurturance in circles
sustained social movement of significance While the Chicano/a movement was
of familial and communal mentors.
in the U.S. (stronger elsewhere in the world fixed on Mexican Americans, the new
But there is also a willingness to cri-
where people are especially challenging Xicanismo is elastic enough so that many
tique our positions: to raise questions of the
globalization). Rather, it is a time where can be considered Xicana/o, including
role of class and homophobia and to ques-
the climate is marked by intimidation and newcomers from Mexico as well as those
tion machismo’s often-negative impact on
fear with the wearing away of constitu- with roots centered in Central and South
the treatment of women. And, indeed, we
tional rights making critique and protest America. It also indicates that the new
learn that the mere presence of a Latina/o
all the more difficult. Xicanismo wishes to recognize its connec-
in a position of power does not indicate
Politically, we have witnessed a very tions and concerns for indigenous move-
that the person has developed a cultural
powerful conservativism and policies which ments everywhere.
enlightenment or a political advocacy that
are as regressive as this nation has seen in Finally, the perspective that many
serves the community well.
some time. This conservatism is frequently within the new Xicanismo bring is holistic
For many Xicanas/os, advocacy and
in opposition to public opinion. Consider, and organic. That is, there is a greater
action, nonetheless, does take place. It is
for example, that while the vast majority of tendency to see things as being intercon-
more complicated and difficult, however,
Americans believe that a “path to citizen- nected (the political with the cultural,
since it must happen both within and
ship” should be part of a comprehensive im- the social with the economic, as but two
outside the system. Thus, Xicanas/os have
migration reform package, the Congress in examples).
the difficult task of “negotiating” their
2006 only passed the building of 700 miles In an interesting change from
dual roles as insider and outsider of the
of fence along the US-Mexican border.4 the Chicano/a period, Xicanas/os find
system as they move to transform their
The equity agenda of the 1980s has themselves both outside and inside “the
microworlds towards greater justice. The
been replaced by an equality agenda— system” including their organizations.
result is various degrees of commitment to
treating everyone the same—evident Consider, for example, that on many col-
this transformation. But the possibility of
in anti-affirmative action propositions lege campuses the student group MEChA
“resistance” to hegemony is always there.
which have been passed by the electorate (Moviemiento Estudiantil Chicanos de
As mentioned earlier, I wanted to de-
in California and Michigan. But equality Atzlan) is considered a “Recognized Stu-
scribe personal events to bring to life these
among equals just reproduces the existing dent Organizations.” There are presidents
two historical moments in the Mexican
inequality; recall Oliver Wendell Holmes’ of universities, faculty, staff, program
American community. The first was in the
adage: “there is no greater inequality than directors, principals, teachers, and school
1970s on Denver’s West Side. This second
the equal treatment of unequals.” staff who are Xicana/o within educational
centers around the May 1st (2006) protests
More specially, with respect to diversity, institutions (as but one example of insti-
in support of immigration rights. Now, I
oppression, and the “isms” (racism, sexism, tutional incorporation).
find myself in Laramie, Wyoming.
homophobia, classism, etc.) have taken on a
more chameleon character which is present
SUMMER 2008
A Xicano Narrative complicated issue, including those whose founded. Perhaps, some day, you will see
perspectives you share, but to recognize this as your patriotic duty as well.
Earlier in the semester, the MEChA that it is but one point of view. The belief is —Dr. Francisco Rios
student organization (yes, officially that understanding the multiple perspec-
recognized) had planned a community tives on this issue is the foundation for I signed it Dr. Rios purposely. But
rally. It was attended by about 70 stu- critical thinking, a bedrock of the purposes the student, using all the privileges of
of education and the establishment of a
dents/faculty/staff and a few community superiority that are granted to her via her
robust democracy. I’ll see you there!
activists. We walked downtown on the Whiteness to “name,” responded:
PS: Let us agree, at minimum, that
sidewalk, chanted some slogans back from
humans cannot be illegal (they can act in
Mr. Rios,
the movimiento,and chanted some new ways that are illegal) and that no person
Thank you for your concern. I am having
slogans as well. We stood on the central is an alien (they are brothers and sisters
as much of an open mind to this issue as
corner of the downtown of Laramie on a in the human race). I invite you to visit
possible, but again, I find it to really be
Saturday and waved posters and flags. with me to discuss this and other issues quite straightforward. I’ve been to rallies
At one point, we stood for 15 minutes in if you wish. such as this before, and have found there’s
Atentamente.
complete silence in respect to those who no “teach” involved, nor is a conservative
have lost their lives crossing the border. —Francisco Rios, Ph.D. view represented at all. In respect to past
It was an eerie silence. We then marched experience, I’m not willing to sit through
The student is quick to reply: another session where people choose to
back to the University where there were
express views just to feel important, re-
speakers, music, and pizza. Mr. Rios,
gardless of the effects/implications/facts.
Some of the high school students, led Please do not try to twist words... while
I also recognize that people may have
by my son, approached a group of Chicano I agree with you that “illegal aliens” when contrary views, that’s one of the beauties
professors and community activists and broken down is not a way to generalize of this country =). I would like to be able
humans as a whole, that is what we have
asked to allow them to organize the march to hold mine without being attacked and
to work with right now. These people are
on May 1, a day when protests nationally constantly bombarded by others trying
acting in a way that is illegal and as such,
were to take place. They asked that the day to change my mind in disrespectful and
are aliens to this nation (These are facts,
unnecessary means (such as the original
be marked by “active teaching.” Mr. Rios).
e-mail and countless others sent by list
An email announcement went out on I am very much a patriot of America,
serves to attempt to desensitize people to
a university diversity listserve informing and do not look at the grey area to issues...
the facts).
people of the event: We have become, after they are either right or wrong. This issue I do appreciate your concern, and your
all, as Guillermo Gomez-Peña describes it, is right to discuss, but wrong to advocate. willingness to discuss the situation. Un-
The facts are the “immigrants” referred to
this nation’s first web-backs (Mendieta & fortunately, there’s nothing to discuss.
in this meeting are not immigrants... Im-
Gómez-Peña, 2001). Over this very public I’ve already done the research, and this
migrants are not illegal, and deserve our
email, we get a response from a student. entire situation is just headed down the
support and help, the people you choose
same path as the abortion debate... ( i.e.,
She writes: to offer solidarity to are illegal, and we
let’s change pro-abortion to pro-choice so
are not in solidarity with them anymore
The people who this event is going to people don’t feel so badly about what’s ac-
than saying we all belong to the human
support are not immigrants... they are tually going on)... I realize that is another
race. I don’t really know how to say it
ILLEGAL ALIENS! Do the research, and issue entirely, and I’m sure we’ll probably
more simply...That is all the further that
please do not be ignorant to the issues disagree on that one as well.
critical thinking needs to go... is it right
at hand when trying to force political Again, thanks for your openness, I hope
or wrong?
issues at others! Immigration is wonder- your rally is more productive and repre-
Regards,
ful, but as a country, Americans cannot sentative of all citizens than past rallies.
support illegal alien rights... it defiles —Student —Student
the principles our country was founded
on, decreases the job market, and has I responded in a way I thought would I have to admit that there was much in
hundreds of other effects. end the conversation:
this exchange of emails to lament. Evident
Most vividly seen right now is the mis-
interpretation of affirmative action. For Hello: is a mixing of issues (immigration with
example: In school districts across the The invitation for you to attend the abortion and patriotism, in this exchange)
country, the American Flag has been taken teach in is a genuine one Alison, as is the which speak to the tangled web of ideolo-
down, and replaced with the Mexican invitation to come to my office to discuss gies (Weiner, 2000) that often inform racist
Flag. The only statements that were made this more. But if you do attend (either), thinking. Evident is the ability, the privi-
were that Americans need to be sensitive please do so with a good heart and an open lege, to ignore and minimize any status
mind. Without both, it will not be much of
to other cultures. achieved by a person of color within the
a “teach” in and rather fall into a politi-
We are Americans, let us remember that academy by a student. Evident is her self-
cal diatribe...that will get us (as citizens
as we discern the impact this legislation and as a nation) no where. Trust that you perceived right to call forth one’s axiologi-
will have on us all.
can talk with me, a person who considers cal position and to name it as “truth.”
—Student
himself more “AMERICAN” than most This email exchange raised lots of ques-
everyone else (my family was on U.S. soil tions for me about my sense of place: How is
I write back to the student, again on before it was the U.S.; my father fought it that a Chicano barrio boy from Denver’s
this public email: in Vietnam; I’ve raised to the ranks of
Westside (y puro rasquachi), who saw the
full professor in U.S. schools). But please
Hi: recognize that well-meaning Americans fine line between juvenile delinquency and
I hope that you will attend the ses- can disagree on these critical issues. a college education, was acting the role of
sion...it’s a teach in and, indeed, there At end, my patriotic duty is to question, profe in an academic research university
is much that I hope you will be open to to learn, to teach, to speak out, and to work in rural Wyoming—and which could be
learning. We intend the teach-in to raise in honor of the principles of equality and completely discounted by students?
the multiple points of view around this social justice upon which this nation was How was it that I sailed through the
MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION
tenure and promotion process with very lit- context of the 1960s and 1970s gave raise u Critical consciousness is essential
tle critique (was I not doing enough to raise of the Chicano/a movement, influenced as for each;
people’s ire)? How did I go from my lower, it was by the Civil Rights Movement and
u There’s an awareness of the role of
working class roots to a middle, collar class the Farmworkers’ organization already
unequal relations of power;
position with all the concomitant family underway. But the Chicano/a movement
aspirations (sending children to Europe was instrumental in forging some of the u They result from various forms of
upon graduation, college as expectation, gains in bilingual education, integration oppression;
white collar expectations for my children)? in schooling and housing, and a more open
How was it that I, an advocate for bilingual job market thereby influencing the very u Social justice lays at the heart of
education, was now project investigator social-political context which gave rise to imaginations; and,
of the state’s ESL program? What have the movement. u They rely on individuals and small
I become comfortable with? What am I As another example, consider the
groups working in local settings to
forgetting? Am I doing enough? degree to which one moves toward critical
make positive change.
Wondering about this locura, and won- consciousness which is dependent upon the
dering how many people would actually identity, ideology and imagination of pos- Movement toward praxis begins with
attend, I dutifully moved ahead working sibilities one takes. But equally important, personal action associated with doing the
with the two Chicana professors and I who critical consciousness calls one to question critical work around identity and ideology
were assigned the teach-in portion of the continually one’s identity, ideology and and imagining one’s actions in pursuit of
event. Organized by the youth, we were worlds of imagination. As but one more ex- social justice (see Figure 2). This movement
met at noon by a small group of community ample, the old school Chicano/a movement then moves to the professional, communal,
activists. We still had no idea how many has influenced la nueva onda Xicanismo; and social. But education is at the heart of
youth would actually show up. and new Xicanas/os are influencing old positive change. Thus we move, as seen from
Over 200 high school students walked school Chicanos. the Figure 2, from the narrowest form of ac-
out. Standing there, in front of the school, it While heretofore I’ve identified the tion, but the one upon which all others rest.
was a beautiful sight to see these students differences between these two historical As can be surmised, each level is broader
streaming out. This time, we walked down moments and identities, I also want to since it has a broader impact. These two
the middle of the street, to the middle of the acknowledge their similarities. Both of dimensions of critical thinking and action,
campus where we were joined by another these moments (Chicano/a and Xicana/o) which Freire called praxis, come together.
150 community members, university stu- rely on the following: My own pedagogical work has focused
dents/faculty, and where we held the teach- on classroom-based practices where we
in. This time, there were fewer speeches but u Identity is a central construct; bring the personal level of action together
instead we engaged in role-play activities
and shared a series of readings.
At various moments, high school youth, Figure 2
community members, and university folks Movement toward Praxis
spontaneously spoke. We felt that we had
created space for a collective imagination
both troubling out assumptions about im-
migration but also imagining more human,
humane, and socially just responses to the
issue.
Toward a Critical Thinking
Orientation
I hope that evident in these stories is
the importance of confianza in our youth
and in the possibilities of imagination.
Evident is the outright resistance to equity
and the political ideology of the conserva-
tive class (Fredrick Douglas was right:
power concedes nothing). Evident is both
the need to question and critique our very
own life positions. Evident is the multiple
shifting identities that our work demands
and negotiating these through our work
within the system while being respetoso y
un buen ejemplo.
Heretofore, I have shared concepts—
Chicanismo with new Xicanismo, criti-
cal thinking with identity, ideology and
imagination—but I wish to acknowledge
that there are mutually influencing di-
mensions (refer again to Figure 1; note
the arrows in the figure). For example, the
SUMMER 2008
with the imagination level of critical con- and social connections. Rather, it is the de- lenge to address diversity issues generally.
sciousness in pursuit of praxis (see Figure velopment of a critical cultural conscious- It’s difficult given the largely conservative
3). These come together for me in social ness which is paramount in bringing the nature of most schools which are reluctant
perspective taking and role-playing activi- much needed assets to the teaching-learn- to hire teachers of color (let alone teachers
ties. To reiterate, the pursuit of productive ing enterprise (Darder, 1993). of color with a critical thinking orienta-
pedagogies, in my thinking, revolves For teachers, these assets include an tion, one which positions the educator,
around the initial work of clarifying identi- ability to understand the social-cultural at times, against the system) (Quiocho &
ties, broadening ideologies, and engaging realities of their students, high expecta- Rios, 2000). It’s difficult given the general
imagination and that this IS praxis. tions, an advocacy for the students’ pri- reluctance of schools to discuss issues of
For me, the greatest possibilities lie in mary language(s) and home culture, the race and racism (Foster, 1993). It’s difficult
pursuing a range of productive pedagogies implementation of a culturally responsive given that Latino educators are at varying
aimed at personal imagination toward fos- pedagogy, and forging robust relationships levels of identity development and critical
tering critical and more holistic thinking, with parents and the local community. In consciousness (as described above).
honoring students’ cultural capital and addition, Galindo (1996) discusses how In sum, schools would need to be will-
developing social network skills, troubling Xicana/o educators can develop a “bridging ing to hire educators who would be critical
and affirming identities, and teaching ad- identity.” of the broader society as well as the school
vocacy and negotiation skills. But we also know that Latino (and (as a system) itself as well as to advocate
any other) educators don’t have the kinds for meaningful change on behalf of his-
Concluding Thoughts: of knowledge and skills to be effective torically marginalized students (including
Perspectivas Criticas y Consejos teachers of Latino students by virtue of Latinos).
their skin color (Berta-Ávila, 2004). Thus, Thus I advance three recommenda-
As suggested, identities are a central these assets (connected to the broader tions which might begin to address this
factor in the teaching-learning process. But goal of fostering a critical cultural and challenge. The first is the advance of a
these identities are dynamic and shifting. professional identity) have to be developed research agenda which details the assets
It’s essential that we can create counter- and/or nurtured within both a teacher that Chicano/a and Xicana/o educators,
spaces, contexts in our classrooms, schools education program and nurtured within those with a critical political conscious-
and communities, for the reframing of the context of meaningful professional ness, bring to the profession. By being
these identities. development and among a cadre of critical able to detail these “tangible and concrete”
So what do I hope we can learn from friends and allies. assets to school-based professionals, they
this essay? To begin, we must acknowledge This is, as one might imagine, a most will be able to see that the resultant advo-
that a shared ethnic heritage between difficult challenge. It’s difficult given the cacy orientation will support meaningful
teachers and student does not imply that general nature of most teacher education academic school reform in ways that will
one is able to make meaningful academic programs which have a hard enough chal- assist in the success of both Latino and
non-Latino students alike. It will help
school-based professionals to identify the
Figure 3 kinds of professional development that
Identity as Praxis will nurture the identity, consciousness,
and cultural assets these educators bring.
And it will allow them to create meaningful
structures within schools (teacher evalu-
ation systems, for example) that identify
and reward those who bring these assets to
bear in their professional practices. I assert
that one prototype for this kind of research
is being done by Berta-Ávila (2004).
The second recommendation is the
incorporation. in preservice and inser-
vice professional development, of critical
cultural thinking (see, for example the
framework developed by Zamudio, Rios,
& Jaime, 2008) as perhaps the most criti-
cal skill that teachers can develop. These
critical thinking frameworks need to be
holistic in orientation. It might include the
following:
u Organic experiences are teachers’
lived experiences which, when ques-
tioned, provides them with insight
into positionality and inequality in
society where knowledge is construct-
ed rather than given in the form of a
dominant ideology;
u Relational analysis describes teach-
MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION
ers’ abilities to make meaningful con- Notes Washington, DC: Teaching for Change.
nections between their lives and the Myers, K. A., & Williamson, P. (2002). Race talk:
lives of others (as members of social 1 Homies are Chicanos with “…separate The perpetuation of racism through private
and distinct personalities and characteristics” discourse. Race and Society, 4(1), 3-26.
groups) as well as to structures of
which make up a single, composite entity. Made Quiocho, A., & Rios, F. (2000). The power of
oppression;
manifest in little figurines (more than 100 in their presence Minority group teachers and
u Historical analysis entails teachers’ all), they are an attempt to portray a variety of schooling. Review of Educational Research,
Chicano characters with the intent which “al- 70(4), 485-529.
ability to see how the past is a context
lows for laughter and good times as an anecdote Sandoval, C. (2000). Methodology of the op-
for the present and how the residu-
for reality” (Gonzalez, 2007). pressed. Minneapolis, MN: University of
als of past oppression are evident in 2 Note the purposeful placement of the “o” Minnesota Press.
contemporary life; and, in front of the “a” in “Chicano/a” to indicate the Sleeter, C. (2007). Neoliberalism, teaching, and
primacy of the male figure within the narrative teacher education. Presentation at annual
u Power relations asks teachers to
of the movimiento during this time period. meeting of the American Educational Re-
recognize that power is embedded in 3 Imagination is used here to capture po- search Association, Chicago.
all social relationships and that they sitionality, critical thinking and praxis (hence, Solózano, D., & Delgado Bernal, D. (2001). Exam-
can be agents better prepared to cri- imagining possibilities) of the specific time. ining transformational resistance through a
tique and act against racist and sexist 4 Note that while in the 2006 elections the critical race and LatCrit theory framework:
ideologies that serve to subordinate Republicans lost control of the Congress, immi- Chicana and Chicano students in an urban
oppressed groups, including Latinos. gration was a wedge issue and many Democrats context. Urban Education, 36(3), 308-342.
who won had to demonstrate that they too were Urrieta, L. (2004). Chicana/o activism and edu-
The third recommendation is the in favor of stringent immigration restrictions. cation. High School Journal, 87(4), 1-9.
importance of teaching advocacy and 5 Note the placement of the “a” in front of Weiner, L. (2000). Research in the 90s: Impli-
negotiation skills as a critical teaching the “o” in Xicana/o to acknowledge the power- cations for teacher preparation, Review of
ful role women have played in all aspects of the Educational Research, 70(3), 369-406.
skill for teachers of color. At the forefront
Xicana/o experience. Yosso, T. J. (2005). Critical race counterstories
of this is the recognition that resistance
along the Chicano/Chicana educational
is not inherently transformative and can,
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