Enemy and Ancestor: Viking Identities and Ethnic Boundaries in

332 Pages·2014·2.5 MB·English

by  Katherine C Cross

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Enemy and Ancestor:
Viking Identities and Ethnic Boundaries in England and Normandy, c.950
– c.1015

Katherine Clare Cross

UCL
Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
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I, Katherine Cross, confirm that the work presented in this thesis is my own. Where
information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this has been indicated
in the thesis.

Signed
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Abstract
This thesis is a comparison of ethnicity in Viking Age England and Normandy. It
focuses on the period c.950-c.1015, which begins several generations after the initial
Scandinavian settlements in both regions. The comparative approach enables an
investigation into how and why the two societies’ inhabitants differed in their
perceptions of viking heritage and its impact on ethnic relations in this period. Written
sources provide the key to these perceptions: genealogies, histories, hagiographies,
charters and law codes. The thesis is the first study to juxtapose and compare these
sources and aspects of Viking Age England and Normandy.
The approach to ethnicity is informed by the social sciences, especially Fredrik
Barth’s Ethnic Groups and Boundaries. The emphasis here is on ethnic identity as a
social construct and as a product of belief in group membership. In particular, this
investigation treats ethnic identity separately from cultural markers such as names, dress,
appearance, and art. In doing so, it presents a new perspective in discussions of
assimilation after Scandinavian settlement.
For the purpose of analysis, ‘ethnicity’ has been divided into three strands:
genealogical, historical and geographical identity. Sources from England and Normandy
are compared within each of the three strands.
The thesis demonstrates the development of a single ‘viking’ group identity in
Normandy, which was defined in distinction to the Franks. In England, on the other
hand, ‘viking’ and ‘Scandinavian’ identities held various meanings and were deployed
in diverse situations. No single group laid exclusive claim to viking heritage, nor
completely rejected it. Ultimately, it is argued that viking identity was used as a tool in
political and military conflicts. It was not an expression of association with
Scandinavian allies, but most often was used as a more local means of distinction within
England and Normandy.
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Contents

Abstract 3
Acknowledgments 7
Abbreviations 9
Note on Terminology 10

Introduction 11

Part I: Genealogical Identity 47
Chapter 1. Genealogical Identity in Normandy 51
I. Frankish royal genealogy 51
II. Royal genealogy and origin myths 56
III. Royalty and aristocracy 60
IV. Dudo’s De moribus et actis primorum Normanniae ducum 69
as genealogy
V. Dudo’s origo gentis 76
VI. Conclusion 83
Chapter 2. Genealogical Identity in England 85
I. English royal genealogy 85
II. West Saxons and Scyldings 96
III. Origo gentis 99
IV. Aristocracy and genealogy 101
V. Æthelweard’s family history 105
VI. Æthelweard’s English origin myth 113
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VII. Conclusion 116

Part II: Historical Identity 119
Chapter 3. Historical Identity in Normandy 123
I. Norman history and hagiography 123
II. Saints crossing boundaries: the translations of St 126
Audoenus
III. Divinely-directed conquest: the prophecies of St Romanus 136
a. Dating the Vita Romani 137
b. Romanus’s viking prophecies 142
IV. Ruin and restoration: the Fécamp Chronicle 151
V. Conclusion 157
Chapter 4. Historical Identity in England 162
I. Saints and vikings 162
II. Exemplary martyrdom: St Edmund of East Anglia 166
III. Defending the kingdom: St Neot 175
a. Dating the Lives of St Neot 176
b. St Neot, Alfred and Guthrum 181
IV. English and Danish in the north: St Cuthbert 185
V. Conclusion 192

Part III: Geographical Identity 198
Chapter 5. Geographical Identity in early Norman charters 202
I. Norman ducal charters 202
II. Ducal self-presentation 209
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a. Rulers of Normandy 210
b. Counts of Rouen 213
c. King and duke 218
III. Territorial range of ducal authority 223
IV. Origins of ducal authority 228
V. ‘The kingdom won by the sweat of battle’ 236
VI. Conclusion 240
Chapter 6. Geographical Identity in English royal diplomas 243
I. The Danelaw 243
II. Tenth-century royal diplomas 249
III. Royal and imperial authority 254
IV. Origins of royal authority 265
V. Territorial range of royal authority 272
VI. Conclusion 277

General Conclusion 279

Bibliography 300
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Acknowledgements
I would like to thank all those who have helped me in various ways during the time I
have been researching and writing this thesis.
My primary thanks go to my supervisor, Antonio Sennis, who has supported,
encouraged and inspired me throughout my time at UCL and the writing of this thesis. I
have always been motivated by Antonio’s suggestions, discussion and advice on all
aspects of the research process, and feel very fortunate to have benefited from his
guidance.
UCL’s History department has provided a supportive environment in which to pursue
my research, and I extend my thanks to the staff and the research students who have
made my time there both pleasant and productive. UCL’s medievalists, especially
Sophie Page and David d’Avray, have offered ideas and encouragement. David read
some of my work and made a number of useful suggestions in my upgrade, and since
then has given much helpful advice.
I wish to express my gratitude to the Arts and Humanities Research Council for funding
my PhD study at UCL, and also to the funders of the UCL Cross-Disciplinary Research
Training Scholarship, which allowed me to spend a year in UCL’s Scandinavian Studies
department. This extra period of study taught me new perspectives on my topic, gave
me the chance to begin studying Old Norse, and introduced me to a wealth of literature
which brought much pleasure as well as insight into various points of my thesis. I am
grateful to the department for hosting me, the tutors of the classes I took, and my fellow
PhD students for being so welcoming.
I would like to thank my second supervisor, Haki Antonsson, for all his help over the
previous four years, and especially during my year in the Scandinavian Studies
department. I am very grateful for Haki’s willingness to read drafts of my work and for
his helpful feedback. I also benefited from Haki’s supervision when taking part in the
Old Norse and Viking Studies Masterclasses in Nottingham, Bergen and Selje. I am
grateful to all the ‘Masters’ who contributed to this programme.
I am especially grateful to Lesley Abrams for inviting me to take part in the
Masterclasses. Lesley inspired my interest in Viking Age England during the first weeks
of my undergraduate degree and subsequently acted as supervisor for my Master’s
dissertation. Since then, Lesley has kindly shown interest in my research and introduced
me to several opportunities. I also wish to thank Heather O’Donoghue, who also
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supervised my master’s dissertation and suggested many productive initial avenues of
research.
Thank you to all my friends and family for enthusiastically taking part in many
conversations about sagas, saints and sociology – and for many more that had nothing to
do with the Middle Ages. Special thanks go to Liz Cross, Anthony Walker, Mona Sakr
and Andrew Fleming for proof-reading sections of this thesis, which is only the most
recent way in which they have helped. Jon Cross and Marie Claire Shankland brought
much-needed cake at the last minute. Steve has supported me in every way, by proof-
reading, giving pep-talks, helping me get organized in the last few months, and much
more. It is thanks to his encouragement that I could persevere and complete my research.
I am most of all grateful to my parents. They have always shown enthusiasm for this
project, made comments and suggestions, discussed the central ideas, and sent me
postcards of viking runes. They have helped in numerous practical ways, from buying
me a desk at the beginning to proof-reading at the end. I am very thankful for all their
support.
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Abbreviations
AASS Acta Sanctorum quotquot tot orbe coluntur (Antwerp and Brussels, 1643-
1940)
ANS Anglo-Norman Studies
ASC Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Quotations are taken from the various volumes
of The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: A Collaborative Edition, ed. by David
Dumville and Simon Keynes (Cambridge: Brewer, 1983- ). Translations
are given from The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, trans. by Michael Swanton
(London: Phoenix, 1996; rev. ed. 2000).
ASC A Volume 3. MS A, ed. by Janet M. Bately (1986)
ASC B Volume 4. MS B, ed. by Simon Taylor (1983)
ASC C Volume 5. MS C, A semi-diplomatic edition with introduction and
indices, ed. by Katherine O’Brien O’Keeffe (2001)
ASC D Volume 6. MS D, ed. by G.P. Cubbin (1996)
ASC E Volume 7. MS E, ed. by Susan Irvine (2004)
BHL Bibliotheca Hagiographica Latina
BSAN Bulletin de la Société des Antiquaires de Normandie
Christiansen Dudo of St Quentin: History of the Normans, trans. by Eric Christiansen
(Woodbridge: Boydell, 1998)
EHD English Historical Documents, ed. by David C. Douglas, 10 vols
(London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1953-1977; 2nd ed. London: Methuen,
1979- ), I: c.500-1042, ed. by Dorothy Whitelock (1979)
EHR English Historical Review
EME Early Medieval Europe
F Recueil des Actes des Ducs de Normandie (911-1066), ed. by Marie
Fauroux, Mémoires de la Société des Antiquaires de Normandie, 36
(Caen: Caron, 1961)
HSC Historia de Sancto Cuthberto, ed. by Ted Johnson South (Cambridge:
Brewer, 2002)
Lair Dudo of Saint-Quentin, De Moribus et Actis Primorum Normanniae
Ducum: Auctore Dudone Sancti Quinini Decano, ed. by Jules Lair (Caen:
Le Blanc-Hardel, 1865)
MGH Monumenta Germaniae Historica
S The Electronic Sawyer: Online Catalogue of Anglo-Saxon Charters
<http://www.esawyer.org.uk/> [accessed 19/05/2013]
TRHS Transactions of the Royal Historical Society
VPSN The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: A Collaborative Edition, ed. by David
Dumville and Simon Keynes (Cambridge: Brewer, 1983- ): Volume 17.
The Annals of St Neots with Vita Prima Sancti Neoti, ed. by David
Dumville and Michael Lapidge (1985)
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Note on Terminology

The term ‘Viking’ has developed an ethnic usage in modern historiography, which
stems from contemporary sources that refer to Scandinavian raiders as, for example,
‘ferox gens’. This idea of raiders as an ‘ethnicity’ in themselves is a development I wish
to investigate. Therefore, in order not to confuse separate issues, I retain a more specific
use of the word ‘viking’, to mean raiders and armies intent on gaining tribute, slaves
and plunder. As such, it is spelt with a lower-case ‘v’. In this usage, it is closer to the
Old Norse word from which it stems, vikingr, and the Old English word used by
contemporaries, wicing, which was used to translate the Latin pirata. In using ‘Viking
Age’ I follow the bulk of the historiography in referring to the period when
Scandinavian vikings were active, roughly c.750-1100.
See Christine Fell, ‘Modern English “Viking”’, Leeds Studies in English, 18 (1987),
111-23; Christine Fell, ‘Old English Wicing’, Proceedings of the British Academy, 72
(1986), 295-316.

‘Normans’ presents a similar problem: for ease of understanding, I have used this term
to apply to viking leaders and Scandinavian immigrants in the land granted to Rollo and
his companions after 911. I have referred to Rollo and his successors as ‘dukes’ for
similar reasons, although this title was not used until later. These issues are discussed
further in Chapter Five.