Electrochemical Sensors, Biosensors, Biosensors and their Biomedical Applications

617 Pages·2007·7.78 MB·English

by  Xueji Zhang

Electrochemical Sensors, Biosensors and Their
Biomedical Applications
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Electrochemical Sensors,
Biosensors and Their
Biomedical Applications
Edited by
Xueji Zhang
World Precision Instruments, Inc., Sarasota, Florida, USA
Huangxian Ju
Nanjing University, Nanjing, P.R. China
Joseph Wang
Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
AMSTERDAM (cid:129) BOSTON (cid:129) HEIDELBERG (cid:129) LONDON (cid:129) NEW YORK (cid:129) OXFORD
PARIS (cid:129) SAN DIEGO (cid:129) SAN FRANCISCO (cid:129) SINGAPORE (cid:129) SYDNEY (cid:129) TOKYO
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First edition 2008
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08 09 10 11 12 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
CONTENTS
List of Contributors xvii
Preface xxi
Chapter 1 Nitric oxide (NO) electrochemical sensors
Xueji Zhang
1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.1 Signifi cance of nitric oxide in life science 1
1.1.2 Methods of measurement of nitric oxide in physiology 2
1.1.3 Advantages of electrochemical sensors for determination of NO 2
1.2 Principles of determination of NO by electrochemical sensors 3
1.3 Fabrication of electrodes for NO determination 4
1.3.1 Clark type NO electrodes 4
1.3.2 Modifi ed carbon fi ber NO microelectrodes 5
1.3.3 Integrated NO microelectrodes 6
1.3.4 Other NO electrodes 7
1.4 Calibration of NO electrodes 8
1.4.1 Calibration using an NO standard solution 8
1.4.2 Calibration based on decomposition of SNAP 9
1.4.3 Calibration based on chemical generation of NO 9
1.5 Characterization of NO electrodes 10
1.5.1 Sensitivity and detection limit 11
1.5.2 Selectivity 12
1.5.3 Response time 12
1.5.4 Effect of temperature and pH on NO electrodes 13
1.6 Selected applications of NO electrodes 14
1.7 Concluding remarks and other directions 23
1.8 Acknowledgments 23
1.9 References 23
vi Contents
Chapter 2 Biosensors for pesticides
Huangxian Ju and Vivek Babu Kandimalla
2.1 Introduction 32
2.1.1 Need for pesticide biosensors 32
2.1.2 Developments in pesticide biosensors 32
2.1.3 Thrust areas for pesticide biosensors 33
2.2 Biocatalysts used in pesticide biosensors 33
2.2.1 Enzymes used in pesticide biosensors and their features 33
2.2.2 Immobilization methods used in pesticide biosensors design 34
2.3 Enzyme-based biosensors construction 35
2.3.1 Pesticides measuring principles 35
2.3.2 Inhibition-based biosensors 35
2.3.3 Catalysis-based biosensors 37
2.3.4 Flow injection biosensors 38
2.3.5 Enzyme reactivation 40
2.4 Pesticide immunosensors 40
2.4.1 Detection methods for pesticide immunosensors 42
2.4.2 Immunosensors for pesticides 42
2.4.2.1 Piezoelectric immunosensors 42
2.4.2.2 Optical immunosensors 42
2.4.2.3 Electrochemical immunosensors 45
2.4.3 Regeneration of pesticide immunosensors 46
2.5 Whole cell and tissue-based pesticide biosensors 48
2.6 Major interfering compounds and sample pretreatment 49
2.7 Conclusions 49
2.8 Acknowledgments 50
2.9 References 50
Chapter 3 Electrochemical glucose biosensors
Joseph Wang
3.1 Introduction 57
3.2 Forty years of progress 58
3.3 First-generation glucose biosensors 59
3.3.1 Redox interferences 59
3.3.2 Oxygen dependence 61
3.4 Second-generation glucose biosensors 61
3.4.1 Electron transfer between GOx and electrode surfaces 61
3.4.2 Use of artifi cial mediators 62
3.4.3 Attachment of electron-transfer relays 62
3.5 In-vitro glucose testing 63
3.6 Continuous real-time in-vivo monitoring 65
Contents vii
3.6.1 Requirements 65
3.6.2 Subcutaneous monitoring 65
3.6.3 Towards non-invasive glucose monitoring 66
3.7 Conclusions and outlook 67
3.8 References 67
Chapter 4 New trends in ion-selective electrodes
Sergey Makarychev-Mikhailov, Alexey Shvarev, and Eric Bakker
4.1 Introduction 71
4.1.1 State-of-the-art 71
4.1.2 Most important biomedical applications of ion-selective electrodes 73
4.2 Classical ion-selective electrodes 77
4.2.1 Understanding of the operational principles 77
4.2.2 Response characteristics: selectivity and detection limits 81
4.2.3 Reference electrodes 85
4.3 New transduction principles 86
4.3.1 Polyion-selective electrodes 86
4.3.2 Galvanostatically controlled sensors 90
4.3.3 Voltammetric ion-selective electrodes 95
4.3.4 Light-addressable potentiometric sensors 96
4.4 New sensor materials 98
4.4.1 Membrane components 98
4.4.2 Solid contact 102
4.4.3 Biocompatibility improvement 103
4.5 Miniaturization 104
4.5.1 Miniaturization 104
4.5.2 Sensor arrays 105
4.6 Future prospects and conclusions 108
4.7 Acknowledgments 109
4.8 References 109
Chapter 5 Recent developments in electrochemical immunoassays and
immunosensors
Jeremy M. Fowler, Danny K.Y. Wong, H. Brian Halsall, and William R. Heineman
5.1 Introduction 115
5.2 The antibody–antigen interaction 116
5.3 Immunoassays and immunosensors 118
5.3.1 Competitive immunoassay systems 118
5.3.2 Non-competitive immunoassay systems 120
5.4 Modes of antibody immobilization 122
viii Contents
5.4.1 Biotin–(strept)avidin interaction 122
5.4.2 Antibody-binding proteins 124
5.4.3 Conducting polymers 125
5.4.4 Self-assembled monolayers 126
5.4.5 Antibody fragments 129
5.5 Electrochemical detection techniques 130
5.5.1 Potentiometric immunosensors 131
5.5.2 Amperometric immunosensors 131
5.5.3 Voltammetric immunoassays 134
5.5.4 Impedimetric immunoassays and immunosensors 135
5.6 Microfl uidic electrochemical immunoassay systems 138
5.7 Concluding remarks 139
5.8 References 140
Chapter 6 Superoxide electrochemical sensors and biosensors:
principles, development and applications
Lanqun Mao, Yang Tian, and Takeo Ohsaka
6.1 Chemistry and biochemistry of superoxide 145
6.2 O (cid:3) bioassay: an overview 146
2
6.3 O •(cid:3) electrochemistry and O •(cid:3) electrochemical sensors 147
2 2
6.4 Electrochemical sensors for O •(cid:3) 148
2
6.4.1 Biosensors with enzymes other than SODs 148
6.4.2 Brief introduction to SODs 149
6.4.3 Electrochemistry of SODs 151
6.4.4 SOD-based electrochemical biosensors for O (cid:3) 162
2
6.4.5 SOD-based micro-sized biosensors for O •(cid:3) 174
2
6.5 Concluding remarks and other directions 177
6.6 Acknowledgments 177
6.7 References 178
Chapter 7 Detection of charged macromolecules by means of fi eld-effect
devices (FEDs): possibilities and limitations
Michael J. Schöning and Arshak Poghossian
7.1 Introductory part and status report 187
7.2 Capacitance–voltage characteristics of a bare and functionalized EIS
structure 193
7.3 Direct electrostatic DNA detection by its intrinsic molecular charge 197
7.4 New method for label-free electrical DNA detection 201
7.5 Measurement results utilizing polyelectrolyte layers and synthetic DNA 205
Contents ix
7.6 Conclusions and future perspectives 208
7.7 Acknowledgments 209
7.8 References 209
Chapter 8 Electrochemical sensors for the determination of
hydrogen sulfi de production in biological samples
David W. Kraus, Jeannette E. Doeller, and Xueji Zhang
8.1 Introduction 214
8.1.1 Signifi cance of H S in the life sciences 215
2
8.1.1.1 H S chemistry 215
2
8.1.1.2 H S biology 216
2
8.1.2 H S measurement in biological samples 216
2
8.1.2.1 Stability of sulfur 216
8.1.2.2 Methods for H S measurements 217
2
8.2 Advantages of electrochemical sensors for H S determination 218
2
8.2.1 Electrochemistry 218
8.2.2 Multi-sensor respirometry 219
8.3 Fabrication of polarographic H S sensors 220
2
8.3.1 Macro polarographic H S sensors 220
2
8.3.2 Miniature polarographic H S sensors 220
2
8.4 Calibration of polarographic H S sensors 221
2
8.4.1 H S stock solutions 221
2
8.4.2 Chemical sources of H S 222
2
8.5 Characterization of polarographic H S sensors 222
2
8.5.1 Selectivity 223
8.5.2 Sensitivity 224
8.5.3 Detection limit 226
8.5.4 Stability 226
8.5.5 Reproducibility, precision and accuracy 226
8.5.6 Linearity and dynamic response range 227
8.5.7 Response time 227
8.5.8 Reliability (maintenance-free working time) 227
8.5.9 Biocompatibility 227
8.6 Applications of polarographic H S sensors in biological samples 228
2
8.6.1 Measurement of H S production 228
2
8.6.1.1 Tissue homogenates 228
8.6.1.2 Cultured and isolated cells 228
8.6.1.3 Intact tissues and organs 229
8.6.2 Measurement of H S consumption 229
2
8.6.2.1 Isolated mussel gill mitochondria 229
8.6.2.2 Cultured cells, intact tissues and organs 230