Ecotoxicology: Effects of Pollutants on the Natural Environment

230 Pages·2014·3.102 MB·English

by  Colin Walker

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
Ecotoxicolog y
W
a
Ecotoxicolog y lk
e
r
Effects of Pollutants on the Natural Environment
Effects of Pollutants on the
Chemical Warfare in Nature
Natural Environment
Pesticides and other industrial chemicals are at the root of many pollution problems. In view of
the toxic effects of industrial chemicals found in the water, soil, and air, Ecotoxicology: Effects of
Pollutants on the Natural Environment considers the impact of chemicals on the environment
from a wider perspective: the evolution of plant toxins—and defense mechanisms against them in
animals as a consequence of plant–animal warfare. Comparisons are made between this and the
development of resistance by insects towards man-made insecticides.
Pesticides and Drugs
E
The text focuses particularly on problems posed by pesticides and, to a lesser extent, by drugs.
c
This material specifically addresses the problems that pesticides pose and explores the development o
of resistance to them. It focuses on the history of pesticides, pesticide selectivity between target t
o
species and beneficial organisms, and types of pesticides. It discusses mandatory ecotoxicity testing x
as part of the process of risk assessment of environmental chemicals. The text considers the effects i
c
of pollutants at the population level, with respect to changes in numbers and genetic composition. o
l
It factors in the sublethal effects of pollutants on population levels, and cites an increase in the o
g
concentration of persistent pollutants in natural food chains as a cause of the decline of certain
y
vertebrate predators.
Overall the text:
• Considers plant toxins as models for pesticides
• Emphasizes principles illustrated with practical examples
• Includes a glossary of terms
Divided into three sections, this text uses a variety of examples and case studies to examine the
effects of pollutants—including naturally occurring ones—on natural processes. It guides the
reader through the basic issues and principles; outlines the science of ecotoxicology, which is the
study of the effects of chemicals upon ecosystems; and introduces various strategies for pollution
control.
K20531
Colin Walker
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Ecotoxicology
Effects of Pollutants on the
Natural Environment

Ecotox icolog y
Effects of Pollutants on the
Natural Environment
Colin Walker
Boca Raton London New York
CRC Press is an imprint of the
Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Version Date: 20140513
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Contents
Preface.......................................................................................................................xi
Introduction ............................................................................................................xiii
Author ....................................................................................................................xvii
Section i Basic issues
Chapter 1 Toxicology and Ecotoxicology .............................................................3
Some Definitions ..................................................................................3
The Discipline of Ecotoxicology ..........................................................4
Selective Toxicity .................................................................................7
Summary ..............................................................................................8
Further Reading ...................................................................................8
Chapter 2 Ecotoxicity............................................................................................9
Introduction ..........................................................................................9
What Determines Ecotoxicity? ..........................................................10
Pesticides and Other Biocides ............................................................11
Industrial Chemicals Other Than Pesticides ......................................12
Protocols for Ecotoxicity Testing .......................................................13
Determination of Median Lethal Dose and Median Lethal
Concentration .....................................................................................14
Ecotoxicity Testing That Uses Sublethal Endpoints ..........................17
Bioassays for Measuring Toxicity ......................................................18
Model Ecosystems ..............................................................................20
Ethical Issues ......................................................................................21
Summary ............................................................................................21
Further Reading .................................................................................22
Chapter 3 A History of Chemical Warfare .........................................................23
An Evolutionary Perspective ..............................................................23
Plant Toxins as Pesticides ...................................................................24
The Coevolutionary “Arms Race”......................................................24
Plant Toxins as Models for Pesticides ................................................24
Chemical Weapons and Predation .....................................................26
Chemical Weapons of Attack and Defense ........................................27
Microbial Toxins ................................................................................28
v
vi Contents
Ecotoxicology against the Background of Chemical Warfare in
Nature .................................................................................................29
Summary ............................................................................................30
Further Reading .................................................................................31
Chapter 4 Toxic Effects at Different Organizational Levels...............................33
Sequential Effects of Pollutants .........................................................33
Effects upon the Individual Organism ...............................................33
Effects at the Population Level...........................................................34
Effects upon Population Genetics ......................................................36
Communities and Ecosystems............................................................37
Effects upon Structure and Function of Communities and
Ecosystems .........................................................................................37
Monitoring Changes in the Composition of Communities ................39
Field Trials ..........................................................................................40
Summary ............................................................................................41
Further Reading .................................................................................42
Chapter 5 The Development of Resistance .........................................................43
Introduction ........................................................................................43
Population Genetics and Evolutionary Theory ..................................43
Pollutants as Stress Factors ................................................................43
Mechanisms of Resistance .................................................................44
Cross-Resistance ................................................................................46
Overcoming Problems of Pesticide Resistance ..................................46
The Evolution of Metal Tolerance in Plants .......................................47
Resistance as an Indicator of Pollution ..............................................47
Summary ............................................................................................48
Further reading ...................................................................................48
Chapter 6 Pesticides and Their Design ...............................................................49
Introduction ........................................................................................49
Early History of Pesticides .................................................................49
The Importance of Selectivity ............................................................50
Types of Pesticides .............................................................................51
Ways of Using Pesticides ....................................................................52
Objectives in the Design of New Pesticides .......................................52
Mass Screening ..................................................................................56
Modeling of New Pesticides Based upon the Structures of Sites
of Action .............................................................................................56
Summary ............................................................................................59
Further Reading .................................................................................60
Contents vii
Chapter 7 Natural Pollutants and Natural Cycles ...............................................61
Introduction ........................................................................................61
Eutrophication ....................................................................................62
Acid Rain ............................................................................................62
Radiation and Radioisotopes ..............................................................64
Oil Pollution .......................................................................................66
Greenhouse Gases and Global Warming ...........................................67
The Ozone Layer ................................................................................68
Global Processes and the Gaia Theory ..............................................68
Summary ............................................................................................70
Further Reading ................................................................................71
Section ii examples of Pollutants
Chapter 8 Early Problems Connected with Urbanization and Mining ...............75
Introduction ........................................................................................75
Detergents in Surface Waters .............................................................76
Air Pollution .......................................................................................77
Mines and Smelting ............................................................................79
Summary ............................................................................................79
Further Reading .................................................................................80
Chapter 9 The Organochlorine Insecticides .......................................................81
Introduction ........................................................................................81
DDT and Related Pesticides ...............................................................81
The Environmental Fate of p,p´-DDT and Related Compounds. .......83
The Cyclodiene Insecticides ...............................................................87
The Environmental Fate of Cyclodienes ............................................90
Effects of DDT and Cyclodienes on Birds of Prey ............................91
Decline of Predatory Birds Related to Eggshell Thinning
Caused by p,p´-DDE ...........................................................................99
Other Effects of Organochlorines ....................................................100
Resistance to Organochlorine Insecticides ......................................101
More Ecofriendly Cyclodienes .........................................................101
Summary ..........................................................................................101
Further Reading ...............................................................................102
Chapter 10 Organophosphorous and Carbamate Insecticides ............................105
Introduction ......................................................................................105
Mode of Action of Anticholinesterases ............................................105
The Organophosphorous Insecticides ..............................................107
viii Contents
Some Examples of Organophosphorous Insecticides ......................108
Toxic Effects of OPs .........................................................................111
Effects of OPs in the Natural Environment .....................................112
Resistance to OPs .............................................................................113
Carbamate Insecticides ....................................................................114
Toxicity of Carbamates in the Field .................................................115
Longer-Term Effects on Soil Microorganisms .................................115
Further Reading ...............................................................................116
Chapter 11 Organometallic Compounds ............................................................117
Introduction ......................................................................................117
Tributyl Tin Compounds ..................................................................117
Organomercury Compounds ............................................................118
The Biomagnification of Methylmercury .........................................120
Poisoning of Predatory Birds in the Field ........................................121
Methylmercury Levels in Piscivorous Vertebrates in North
America ............................................................................................121
Organolead Compounds ...................................................................122
Organoarsenic Compounds ..............................................................123
Summary ..........................................................................................123
Further reading .................................................................................124
Chapter 12 Pyrethroid and Neonicotinoid Insecticides ......................................125
Introduction ......................................................................................125
The Synthetic Pyrethroids ................................................................126
Environmental Fate and Concerns ...................................................127
The Development of Resistance to Pyrethroids ...............................127
The Neonicotinoids ..........................................................................128
Development of Resistance to Neonicotinoids .................................129
Potentiation of the Toxicity of Pyrethroids and Neonicotinoids ......129
Effects of Pyrethroids and Neonicotinoids on Honeybees...............130
Summary ..........................................................................................131
Further Reading ...............................................................................132
Chapter 13 PCBs and Dioxins ............................................................................133
Introduction ......................................................................................133
The Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) ............................................133
Early Pollution Incidents Involving PCBs ........................................136
The Dioxins ......................................................................................138
The Combined Toxicity of PCBs and Dioxins .................................139
Summary ..........................................................................................141
Further Reading ...............................................................................141
Contents ix
Chapter 14 Herbicides .........................................................................................143
Introduction ......................................................................................143
The Impact of Herbicides on Agricultural Ecosystems ...................144
The Aerial Movement of Herbicides ................................................147
Contamination of Surface Waters with Herbicides ..........................148
Herbicides That Have Significant Toxicity toward Animals ............149
Summary ..........................................................................................150
Further Reading ...............................................................................150
Chapter 15 Endocrine Disruptors .......................................................................151
Introduction ......................................................................................151
The Feminization of Fish Caused by Estrogens ...............................152
Endocrine Disruption Involving the Ah Receptor ...........................153
Disturbances of the Metabolism of Steroid Hormones by
Pollutants ..........................................................................................154
The Diversity of Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) in
the Environment ...............................................................................154
Summary ..........................................................................................155
Further Reading ...............................................................................156
Chapter 16 Anticoagulant Rodenticides .............................................................157
Introduction ......................................................................................157
Mode of Action of the Anticoagulant Rodenticides (ARs) ..............157
Secondary Poisoning of Predators and Scavengers .........................159
Resistance to Anticoagulant Rodenticides .......................................161
Summary ..........................................................................................161
Further Reading ...............................................................................162
Section iii Further issues
Chapter 17 Pollution Problems Worldwide .........................................................165
Introduction ......................................................................................165
International Approaches to Pollution Problems .............................166
Developed and Developing Countries ..............................................166
Aerial Application of Pesticides .......................................................167
Plastics ..............................................................................................169
Nanoparticles ....................................................................................169
Summary ..........................................................................................170
Further Reading ...............................................................................171