Table Of ContentDurability of Concrete in Cold Climates
Modern Concrete Technology Series
Series Editors
Arnon Bentur Sidney Mindess
National Building Research Institute Department of Civil Engineering
Technion-Israel Institute of Technology University of British Columbia
Technion City 2324 Main Mall
Haifa 32 000 Vancouver
Israel British Columbia
Canada V6T 1W5
Fibre Reinforced Cementitious Composites
A.Bentur and S.Mindess
Concrete in the Marine Environment
P.K.Mehta
Concrete in Hot Environments
I.Soroka
Durability of Concrete in Cold Climates
M.Pigeon and R.Pleau
High Strength Concrete
P.C.Aïtcin
(forthcoming)
Durability of Concrete
in Cold Climates
M.Pigeon
Department of Civil Engineering, Laval University, Québec, Canada
and
R.Pleau
School of Architecture, Laval University, Québec, Canada
LONDON AND NEW YORK
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First edition 1995
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To Jack
Contents
Series foreword x
Preface xi
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
References 7
Chapter 2 Theories of frost action and de-icer salt scaling mechanisms 8
2.1 Theories of frost action 8
2.2 De-icer salt scaling mechanisms 17
References 23
Chapter 3 Basic concepts related to frost resistance 25
3.1 Deterioration due to frost action 25
3.2 Ice formation in hardened cement pastes and concretes 29
3.3 Required air-void characteristics 33
3.4 Other hypotheses concerning frost action 37
3.5 Special tests 38
3.6 Frost resistance numbers 40
References 43
Chapter 4 Laboratory tests 45
4.1 Concrete tests 45
4.1.1 Critical dilation test 45
4.1.2 Resistance to rapid freezing and thawing 48
4.1.3 Surface scaling resistance 54
4.1.4 Other test methods 61
4.1.5 Significance of laboratory tests as regards to the field
performance of concrete 66
4.2 Tests on aggregates 66
4.2.1 Petrographic examination 67
4.2.2 Sulphate soundness test 67
4.2.3 Critical dilation procedures 68
4.2.4 Other tests 69
Contents vii
4.3 Tests on admixtures 69
4.3.1 Air-entraining admixtures 69
4.3.2 Water-reducing, retarding and accelerating admixtures 71
4.3.3 Fly ash or natural pozzolans 71
4.4 Determination of air content in fresh concrete 72
4.4.1 Pressure method (ASTM C 231) 72
4.4.2 Volumetric method (ASTM C 173) 76
4.4.3 Gravimetric method (ASTM C 138) 77
4.5 Microscopic determination of air content and other
characteristics of the air-void system 79
4.5.1 Fundamentals 79
4.5.2 Sampling and preparation of the concrete specimens 80
4.5.3 T est procedure and computation of the air-void
characteristics 81
4.5.4 Precision of measurement 84
4.5.5 Influence of large air voids on the spacing factor 86
4.5.6 Determination of air-void characteristics by
computer-assisted image analysis 87
4.5.7 Protected paste concept 89
4.6 Determination of the spacing factor in fresh concrete 91
References 91
Chapter 5 Influence of materials and mix characteristics 94
5.1 Introduction 94
5.2 Influence of materials 95
5.2.1 Main constituents 95
5.2.2 Admixtures 97
5.2.3 Mineral additives 100
5.2.4 Other products 104
5.3 Frost behaviour of coarse aggregates 105
5.3.1 Frost susceptibility of aggregates 105
5.3.2 Influence of the porosity of aggregates 111
5.3.3 Surface deterioration due to aggregates and D-line
cracking 116
5.3.4 Petrographic nature of aggregates 118
5.4 Influence of mix composition 119
5.4.1 Water/cement ratio 119
5.4.2 Mixture proportions 120
viii Contents
5.5 High-strength concrete 120
5.6 Special products 124
References 125
Chapter 6 Air entrainment 129
6.1 Basic principles 129
6.2 Chemicals used as air-entraining agents 132
6.3 Characteristics of the air-void system in hardened concrete 133
6.4 Production and stability of the air-void system 135
6.5 Parameters affecting air entrainment 136
6.5.1 Cement and mineral additives 136
6.5.2 Aggregates 139
6.5.3 Admixtures 138
6.5.4 Water 142
6.5.5 Mix composition and characteristics 142
6.5.6 Mixing, placing and finishing techniques 144
6.6 Practical considerations 146
6.7 Other effects of air entrainment 150
References 151
Chapter 7 Exposure conditions and field performance 154
7.1 Exposure conditions 154
7.2 Field performance 159
References 164
Chapter 8 Frost durability of dry concretes 167
8.1 The different types of dry concretes 167
8.2 Internal structure of dry concretes 169
8.3 Air entrainment in dry concretes 171
8.4 Frost resistance 173
8.5 Summary 176
References 177
Chapter 9 How to make a durable concrete 178
9.1 Choice of materials 178
9.2 Characteristics of the air-void system 180
9.3 Mixture characteristics 183
9.4 Mixing procedures 184
9.5 Transportation and placing techniques 184
Contents ix
9.6 Curing 185
9.7 Protective coatings and sealers 187
9.8 Design and maintenance of concrete structures 188
9.9 Cold weather concreting 189
9.10 Codes of practice 193
References 195
Index 197
