Digital terrain modeling: principles and methodology

324 Pages·2004·15.622 MB·English

by  Zhilin Li, Qing Zhu, Chris Gold

DIGITAL TERRAIN MODELING
Principles and Methodology
Dr. Zhilin Li
Professor in Geo-Informatics
Department of Land Surveying and Geo-Informatics
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Dr. Qing Zhu
Professor in GIS
State Key Laboratory for Information Engineering in
Surveying, Mapping and Remote Sensing (LIESMARS)
Wuhan University
Dr. Christopher Gold
Professor, EU Marie-Curie Chair
School of Computing
University of Glamorgan
CRC PR ESS
Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.
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Li,Zhilin,1960–
Digitalterrainmodeling:principlesandmethodology/
ZhilinLi,QingZhu,andChrisGold.
p.cm.
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN0-415-32462-9
1.Digitalmapping–Methodology.I.Zhu,Qing,1966–II.Gold,Chris,1944–III.Title.
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Contents
Preface xv
1 Introduction 1
1.1 RepresentationofDigitalTerrainSurfaces 1
1.1.1 RepresentationofTerrainSurfaces 1
1.1.2 RepresentationofDigitalTerrainSurfaces 4
1.2 DigitalTerrainModels 4
1.2.1 TheConceptofModelandMathematicalModels 4
1.2.2 TheTerrainModelandtheDigitalTerrainModel 6
1.2.3 DigitalElevationModelsandDigitalTerrainModels 7
1.3 DigitalTerrainModeling 9
1.3.1 TheProcessofDigitalTerrainModeling 9
1.3.2 DevelopmentofDigitalTerrainModeling 9
1.4 RelationshipsBetweenDigitalTerrainModelingand
OtherDisciplines 11
2 TerrainDescriptorsandSamplingStrategies 13
2.1 General(Qualitative)TerrainDescriptors 13
2.2 NumericTerrainDescriptors 14
2.2.1 FrequencySpectrum 14
2.2.2 FractalDimension 15
2.2.3 Curvature 16
2.2.4 CovarianceandAuto-Correlation 17
2.2.5 Semivariogram 17
2.3 TerrainRoughnessVector:Slope,Relief,andWavelength 18
2.3.1 Slope,Relief,andWavelengthasaRoughnessVector 18
2.3.2 TheAdequacyoftheTerrainRoughnessVectorfor
DTMPurposes 19
2.3.3 EstimationofSlope 20
2.4 TheoreticalBasisforSurfaceSampling 21
2.4.1 TheoreticalBackgroundforSampling 21
2.4.2 SamplingfromDifferentPointsofView 22
v

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vi CONTENTS
2.5 SamplingStrategyforDataAcquisition 24
2.5.1 SelectiveSampling:VeryImportantPointsplus
OtherPoints 24
2.5.2 SamplingwithOneDimensionFixed:Contouringand
Profiling 25
2.5.3 SamplingwithTwoDimensionsFixed:RegularGridand
ProgressiveSampling 25
2.5.4 CompositeSampling:AnIntegratedStrategy 26
2.6 AttributesofSampledSourceData 26
2.6.1 DistributionofSampledSourceData 26
2.6.2 DensityofSampledSourceData 28
2.6.3 AccuracyofSampledSourceData 28
3 TechniquesforAcquisitionofDTMSourceData 31
3.1 DataSourcesforDigitalTerrainModeling 31
3.1.1 TheTerrainSurfaceasaDataSource 31
3.1.2 AerialandSpaceImages 32
3.1.3 ExistingTopographicMaps 34
3.2 Photogrammetry 35
3.2.1 TheDevelopmentofPhotogrammetry 35
3.2.2 BasicPrinciplesofPhotogrammetry 36
3.3 RadargrammetryandSARInterferometry 39
3.3.1 ThePrincipleofSyntheticAperture
RadarImaging 40
3.3.2 PrinciplesofInterferometricSAR 43
3.3.3 PrinciplesofRadargrammetry 48
3.4 AirborneLaserScanning(LIDAR) 50
3.4.1 BasicPrincipleofAirborneLaserScanning 53
3.4.2 FromLaserPointCloudtoDTM 55
3.5 CartographicDigitization 56
3.5.1 Line-FollowingDigitization 56
3.5.2 RasterScanning 57
3.6 GPSforDirectDataAcquisition 58
3.6.1 TheOperationofGPS 58
3.6.2 ThePrinciplesofGPSMeasurement 60
3.6.3 ThePrinciplesofTraditional
SurveyingTechniques 61
3.7 AComparisonbetweenDTMDatafromDifferentSources 62
4 DigitalTerrainSurfaceModeling 65
4.1 BasicConceptsofSurfaceModeling 65
4.1.1 InterpolationandSurfaceModeling 65
4.1.2 SurfaceModelingandDTMNetworks 66
4.1.3 SurfaceModelingFunction:GeneralPolynomial 66
4.2 ApproachesforDigitalTerrainSurfaceModeling 67
4.2.1 SurfaceModelingApproaches:AClassification 68
4.2.2 Point-BasedSurfaceModeling 68

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CONTENTS vii
4.2.3 Triangle-BasedSurfaceModeling 69
4.2.4 Grid-BasedSurfaceModeling 70
4.2.5 HybridSurfaceModeling 71
4.3 TheContinuityofDTMSurfaces 72
4.3.1 TheCharacteristicsofDTMSurfaces:AClassification 72
4.3.2 DiscontinuousDTMSurfaces 72
4.3.3 ContinuousDTMSurfaces 73
4.3.4 SmoothDTMSurfaces 74
4.4 TriangularNetworkFormationforSurfaceModeling 75
4.4.1 TriangularRegularNetworkFormationfromRegularly
DistributedData 75
4.4.2 TriangularIrregularNetworkFormationfromRegularly
DistributedData 77
4.4.3 TriangularIrregularNetworkFormationfromIrregularly
DistributedData 79
4.4.4 TriangularIrregularNetworkFormationfromSpecially
DistributedData 80
4.5 GridNetworkFormationforSurfaceModeling 80
4.5.1 CoarserGridNetworkFormationfromFinerGridData:
Resampling 81
4.5.2 GridNetworkFormationfromRandomly
DistributedData 82
4.5.3 GridNetworkFormationfromContourData 83
5 GenerationofTriangularIrregularNetworks 87
5.1 TriangularIrregularNetworkFormation:Principles 87
5.1.1 ApproachesforTriangularIrregularNetworkFormation 87
5.1.2 PrinciplesofTriangularIrregularNetworkFormation 88
5.2 Vector-BasedStaticDelaunayTriangulation 90
5.2.1 SelectionofaStartingPointforDelaunay
Triangulation 90
5.2.2 SearchingforaPointtoFormaNewTriangle 92
5.2.3 TheProcessofDelaunayTriangulation 93
5.3 Vector-BasedDynamicDelaunayTriangulation 94
5.3.1 ThePrincipleofBowyer–WatsonAlgorithmfor
DynamicTriangulation 94
5.3.2 Walk-ThroughAlgorithmforLocatingtheTriangle
ContainingaPoint 95
5.3.3 NumericalCriterionforEdgeSwapping 97
5.3.4 RemovalofaPointfromtheDelaunay
Triangulation 98
5.4 ConstrainedDelaunayTriangulation 99
5.4.1 ConstraintsforDelaunayTriangulation:TheIssue
andSolutions 99
5.4.2 DelaunayTriangulationwithConstraints 101

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viii CONTENTS
5.5 TriangulationfromContourDatawithSkeletonization 102
5.5.1 ExtractionofSkeletonLinesfromContourMap 103
5.5.2 HeightEstimationforSkeletonPoints 104
5.5.3 TriangulationfromContourDatawithSkeletons 106
5.6 DelaunayTriangulationsviaVoronoiDiagrams 107
5.6.1 DerivationofDelaunayTriangulationsfrom
VoronoiDiagrams 108
5.6.2 Vector-BasedAlgorithmsfortheGenerationof
VoronoiDiagram 108
5.6.3 Raster-BasedAlgorithmsfortheGenerationof
VoronoiDiagram 111
6 InterpolationTechniquesforTerrain
SurfaceModeling 115
6.1 InterpolationTechniques:AnOverview 115
6.2 Area-BasedExactFittingofLinearSurfaces 117
6.2.1 SimpleLinearInterpolation 117
6.2.2 BilinearInterpolation 117
6.3 Area-BasedExactFittingofCurvedSurface 119
6.3.1 BicubicSplineInterpolation 119
6.3.2 Multi-SurfaceInterpolation(HardyMethod) 120
6.4 Area-BasedBestFittingofSurfaces 123
6.4.1 Least-SquaresFittingofaLocalSurface 123
6.4.2 Least-SquaresFittingofFiniteElements 126
6.5 Point-BasedMovingAveraging 127
6.5.1 ThePrincipleofPoint-BasedMovingAveraging 127
6.5.2 SearchingforNeighborPoints 128
6.5.3 DeterminationofWeightingFunctions 129
6.6 Point-BasedMovingSurfaces 130
6.6.1 PrinciplesofMovingSurfaces 131
6.6.2 SelectionofPoints 131
7 QualityControlinTerrainDataAcquisition 133
7.1 QualityControl:ConceptsandStrategy 133
7.1.1 ASimpleStrategyforQualityControlinDigital
TerrainModeling 133
7.1.2 SourcesofErrorinDTMSource(Raw)Data 134
7.1.3 TypesofErrorinDTMSourceData 134
7.2 On-LineQualityControlinPhotogrammetricDataAcquisition 135
7.2.1 SuperimpositionofContoursBacktothe
StereoModel 135
7.2.2 ZeroStereoModelfromOrthoimages 135
7.2.3 TrendSurfaceAnalysis 136
7.2.4 Three-DimensionalPerspectiveViewfor
VisualInspection 136

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CONTENTS ix
7.3 FilteringoftheRandomErrorsoftheOriginalData 136
7.3.1 TheEffectofRandomNoiseontheQualityof
DTMData 137
7.3.2 Low-PassFilterforNoiseFiltering 139
7.3.3 ImprovementofDTMDataQualitybyFiltering 140
7.3.4 Discussion:WhentoApplyaLow-PassFiltering 141
7.4 DetectionofGrossErrorsinGridDataBasedonSlopeInformation142
7.4.1 GrossErrorDetectionUsingSlopeInformation:An
Introduction 143
7.4.2 GeneralPrincipleofGrossErrorDetectionBasedonan
AdaptiveThreshold 143
7.4.3 ComputationofanAdaptiveThreshold 145
7.4.4 DetectionofGrossErrorandCorrectionofaPoint 146
7.4.5 APracticalExample 147
7.5 DetectionofIsolatedGrossErrorsinIrregularly
DistributedData 147
7.5.1 ThreeApproachesforDevelopingAlgorithmsforGross
ErrorDetection 148
7.5.2 GeneralPrincipleBasedonthePointwiseAlgorithm 149
7.5.3 RangeofNeighbors(SizeofWindow) 149
7.5.4 CalculatingtheThresholdValueandSuspectingaPoint 150
7.5.5 APracticalExample 150
7.6 DetectionofaClusterofGrossErrorsinIrregularly
DistributedData 151
7.6.1 GrossErrorsinCluster:TheIssue 151
7.6.2 TheAlgorithmforDetectingGrossErrorsinClusters 153
7.6.3 APracticalExample 154
7.7 DetectionofGrossErrorsBasedonTopologicRelationsofContours155
7.7.1 GrossErrorsinContourData:AnExample 155
7.7.2 TopologicalRelationsofContoursforGross
ErrorDetection 156
8 AccuracyofDigitalTerrainModels 159
8.1 DTMAccuracyAssessment:AnOverview 159
8.1.1 ApproachesforDTMAccuracyAssessment 159
8.1.2 DistributionsofDTMErrors 160
8.1.3 MeasuresforDTMAccuracy 161
8.1.4 FactorsAffectingDTMAccuracy 163
8.2 DesignConsiderationsforExperimentalTestsonDTMAccuracy 165
8.2.1 StrategiesforExperimentalTests 165
8.2.2 RequirementsforCheckpointsinExperimentalTests 166
8.3 EmpiricalModelsfortheAccuracyoftheDTMDerivedfrom
GridData 170
8.3.1 ThreeISPRSTestDataSets 170
8.3.2 EmpiricalModelsfortheRelationshipbetweenDTM
AccuracyandSamplingIntervals 170

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x CONTENTS
8.3.3 EmpiricalModelsforDTMAccuracyImprovementwith
theAdditionofFeatureData 172
8.4 TheoreticalModelsofDTMAccuracyBasedonSlopeand
SamplingInterval 173
8.4.1 TheoreticalModelsforDTMAccuracy:AnOverview 174
8.4.2 PropagationofErrorsfromDTMSourceDatato
theDTMSurface 178
8.4.3 AccuracyLossDuetoLinearRepresentationofTerrain
Surface 180
8.4.4 MathematicalModelsoftheAccuracyofDTMsLinearly
ConstructedfromGridData 186
8.5 EmpiricalModelfortheRelationshipbetweenGridand
ContourIntervals 188
8.5.1 EmpiricalModelfortheAccuracyofDTMsConstructed
fromContourData 188
8.5.2 EmpiricalModelfortheRelationshipbetweenContour
andGridIntervals 189
9 Multi-ScaleRepresentationsofDigitalTerrainModels 191
9.1 Multi-ScaleRepresentationsofDTM:AnOverview 191
9.1.1 ScaleasanImportantIssueinDigitalTerrainModeling 191
9.1.2 TransformationinScale:AnIrreversibleProcessin
GeographicalSpace 192
9.1.3 Scale,Resolution,andSimplificationofRepresentations 194
9.1.4 ApproachesforMulti-ScaleRepresentations 195
9.2 HierarchicalRepresentationofDTMatDiscreteScales 196
9.2.1 PyramidalStructureforHierarchicalRepresentation 196
9.2.2 QuadtreeStructureforHierarchicalRepresentation 198
9.3 MetricMulti-ScaleRepresentationofDTMatContinuousScales:
Generalization 200
9.3.1 RequirementsforMetricMulti-ScaleRepresentation
ofDTM 200
9.3.2 ANaturalPrincipleforDTMGeneralization 200
9.3.3 DTMGeneralizationBasedontheNaturalPrinciple 202
9.4 VisualMulti-ScaleRepresentationofDTMatContinuousScales:
View-DependentLOD 205
9.4.1 PrinciplesforView-DependentLOD 205
9.4.2 TypicalAlgorithmsforView-DependentLODfor
DTMData 207
9.5 Multi-ScaleDTMataNationalLevel 208
9.5.1 Multi-ScaleDTMinChina 209
9.5.2 Multi-ScaleDTMintheUnitedStates 209
10 ManagementofDTMData 211
10.1 StrategiesformanagementofDTMdata 211
10.1.1 StrategyforMakingDTMDataManagementOperational 211
10.1.2 StrategyforUsingDatabasesforDTMDataManagement 212

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CONTENTS xi
10.2 ManagementofDTMDatawithFiles 213
10.2.1 FileStructureforGridDTM 213
10.2.2 FileStructureforTINDTM 214
10.2.3 FileStructureforAdditionalTerrainFeatureData 216
10.3 ManagementofDTMDatawithSpatialDatabases 217
10.3.1 OrganizationofTablesforGridDTMData 218
10.3.2 OrganizationofTablesforTINDTMData 221
10.3.3 OrganizationofTablesforAdditionalTerrain
FeatureData 223
10.3.4 OrganizationofTablesforMetadata 225
10.4 CompressionofDTMData 226
10.4.1 ConceptsandApproachesforDTMDataCompression 226
10.4.2 HuffmanCoding 227
10.4.3 DifferencingFollowedbyCoding 228
10.5 StandardsforDTMDataFormat 229
10.5.1 ConceptsandPrinciplesofDTMDataStandards 230
10.5.2 StandardsforDTMDataExchangeoftheUnitedStates 231
10.5.3 StandardsforDTMDataExchangeofChina 231
11 ContouringfromDigitalTerrainModels 233
11.1 ApproachesforContouringfromDTM 233
11.2 Vector-BasedContouringfromGridDTM 233
11.2.1 SearchingforContourPoints 234
11.2.2 InterpolationofContourPoints 235
11.2.3 TracingContourLines 236
11.2.4 SmoothingContourLines 238
11.3 Raster-BasedContouringfromGridDTM 238
11.3.1 BinaryandEdgeContouring 239
11.3.2 Gray-ToneContouring 241
11.4 Vector-BasedContouringfromTriangulatedDTM 241
11.5 StereoContouringfromGridDTM 243
11.5.1 ThePrincipleofStereoContouring 243
11.5.2 GenerationofStereomateforContourMap 245
12 VisualizationofDigitalTerrainModels 247
12.1 VisualizationofDigitalTerrainModels:AnOverview 247
12.1.1 VariablesforVisualization 247
12.1.2 ApproachesfortheVisualizationofDTMData 250
12.2 Image-Based2-DDTMVisualization 250
12.2.1 SlopeShadingandHillShading 251
12.2.2 Height-BasedColoring 252
12.3 RenderingTechniqueforThree-DimensionalDTMVisualization 253
12.3.1 BasicPrinciplesofRendering 253
12.3.2 GraphicTransformations 254
12.3.3 VisibleSurfacesIdentification 256
12.3.4 TheSelectionofanIlluminationModel 257
12.3.5 GrayValueAssignmentforGraphicsGeneration 259

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xii CONTENTS
12.4 TextureMappingforVirtualLandscapeGeneration 260
12.4.1 MappingTextureontoDTMSurfaces 260
12.4.2 MappingOtherAttributesontoDTMSurfaces 262
12.5 AnimationTechniquesforDTMVisualization 262
12.5.1 PrinciplesofAnimation 263
12.5.2 SeamlessPan-ViewonDTMinaLargeArea 264
12.5.3 “Fly-Through”and“Walk-Through”for
DTMVisualization 266
13 InterpretationofDigitalTerrainModels 267
13.1 DTMInterpretation:AnOverview 267
13.2 GeometricTerrainParameters 267
13.2.1 SurfaceandProjectionAreas 268
13.2.2 Volume 270
13.3 MorphologicalTerrainParameters 271
13.3.1 SlopeandAspect 271
13.3.2 PlanandProfileCurvatures 274
13.3.3 RateofChangeinSlopeandAspect 275
13.3.4 RoughnessParameters 275
13.4 HydrologicalTerrainParameters 276
13.4.1 FlowDirection 276
13.4.2 FlowAccumulationandFlowLine 278
13.4.3 DrainageNetworkandCatchments 279
13.4.4 MultipleDirectionFlowModeling:ADiscussion 280
13.5 VisibilityTerrainParameters 281
13.5.1 Line-of-Sight:Point-to-PointVisibility 282
13.5.2 Viewshed:Point-to-AreaVisibility 283
14 ApplicationsofDigitalTerrainModels 285
14.1 ApplicationsinCivilEngineering 285
14.1.1 HighwayandRailwayDesign 285
14.1.2 WaterConservancy 286
14.2 ApplicationsinRemoteSensingandMapping 288
14.2.1 OrthoimageGeneration 288
14.2.2 RemoteSensingImageAnalysis 290
14.3 ApplicationsinMilitaryEngineering 290
14.3.1 FlightSimulation 290
14.3.2 VirtualBattlefield 291
14.4 ApplicationsinResourcesandEnvironment 291
14.4.1 WindFieldModelsforEnvironmentalStudy 291
14.4.2 SunlightModelforClimatology 292
14.4.3 FloodSimulation 292
14.4.4 AgricultureManagement 293
14.5 MarineNavigation 293
14.6 OtherApplications 295

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