Developing Responsive Indicators for the Indian Biosphere Reserve Programme

12 Pages·2003·7.6 MB·

by  Anirban Ganguly

DEVELOPING RESPONSIVE INDICATORS
FOR THE INDIAN BIOSPHERE RESERVE PROGRAMME
Anirban Ganguly1 Yogesh Gokhale2’3 and Madhav Gadgil2-4
,
Key words: Biosphere Reserves, India, indicators, monitoring and evaluation,
community participation
BiosphereReserves(BRs) are intendedtoreconcilechallengesrelatingtoconservation and sustainable
useofbiodiversity, social and economicdevelopment and maintenance ofassociated cultural values.
In keeping with these objectives, India has established a network of 1 1 Biosphere Reserves. The
study attempts to evaluate the performance of these BRs using a set of indicators relating to
communityparticipation, legal and institutional mechanisms, managementcapacityandeffectiveness.
The specific indicators relate to the Indian context and give special attention to issues like people-
wildlife conflict, understandingofprogrammeobjectives atvarious hierarchical levels, continuance
oftraditional conservation practices and promotion ofscientific research. Indian BRs have, by and
large, failed to resolve oreven added to resource conflicts dueto interagency disputes or imposition
of an inappropriate model of development. Moreover, major management decisions seem to be
taken at higher bureaucratic levels without reference to livelihood concerns of local people and
traditional resource management systems followed in local areas. On the other hand, Indian BRs
have been successful in areas like supplementary income generation. The study also points to a
methodology ofusing ‘discriminatory’ performance indicators which would be adequately sensitive
to the proximate needs ofecologically handicapped communities.
Introduction management capacity and effectiveness, drawing
from a number ofcase studies.
Biosphere Reserves are intended to The idea ofBiosphere Reserveswas mooted
reconcile challenges relatingto conservation and by UNESCO in 1973-74 under its Man and
sustainable use of biodiversity, social and Biosphere (MAB)programme. Biosphere Reserve
economic development and maintenance of (BR) is an international designation coined by
(UNESCO UNESCO
associated cultural values 1996). In for representative parts ofnatural and
keeping with these objectives, India has cultural landscapes extending over terrestrial or
established a network of eleven Biosphere coastal/marine ecosystems. In India, BR is not a
Reserves till—October 1999. Out ofthese eleven, legal conservation category, unlike Wildlife
only three Nilgiri, Gulf of Mannar and Sanctuaries and National Parks. However, areas
—
Sundarban are recognised under UNESCO’s earmarked as BRs often overlap with areas which
Man and Biosphere programme as of May 17, are legallyprotected, often resulting in conflicting
2002 http://www.unesco.org/mab/brlist.htm) The plans and programmes.
( .
present study attempts to evaluate the
performance of these Reserves, using a set of Material and Methods
indicators relatingto community involvement and
participation, legal and regulatory mechanisms, Field experience
One of the authors (MG) has been associated
'Tata Energy Research Institute, Darbari Seth Block,
Habitat Place, Lodhi Road, New Delhi 110 003, India. with the Indian Biosphere Reserve Programme
2Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of since its earlybeginnings in 1980. Atthattime, he
Science, Bangalore 560 012, Karnataka, India. was commissionedbythe Government ofIndiato
Email: [email protected]
prepare the project document for the
Email: [email protected]
214 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(2&3), AUG.-DEC. 2003
THE INDIAN BIOSPHERE RESERVE PROGRAMME
establishment oftheNilgiri BR. This subsequently The data collection has involved interviews
became the first biosphere reserve to be with forest and other government officials, local
established in 1986. The Centre for Ecological people, researchers, andNGOs working in the area.
Sciences established a Field Research Station in Several field visits were conducted for rapid
the Nilgiri BR in thatyearandhas been continually assessment ofthe various components ofthe BR
involved in monitoring the functioning ofthat BR programmes at various Biosphere Reserves by
since its inception. In 1992, the Ministry of one of the authors or by the collaborators
Environment and Forests (MoEF), Government mentioned earlier. Secondary information sources
ofIndia commissioned the Centre for Ecological in the form of reports, newspaper articles and
Sciences (CES), Indian Institute of Science, official documents were also referred to.
Bangalore in 1992 to undertake amid-term review
ofthe Biosphere Reserve Programme. As a part Evaluation methodology
ofthis exercise, Madhav Gadgil and R. Prabhakar Of late, there has been a proliferation of
BR
undertook a specific review ofthe Nilgiri and literature on the evaluation of developmental
Niraj Joshi undertook field visits to the following interventions. The World Bank, World Resources
Biosphere reserves: GulfofMannar, Nandadevi, Institute, IUCN andBiodiversity Support Program
Nilgiri, Nokrek, Manas and Sundarban. This mid- ofWWF, forexample, provide detailed guidelines
term review was followed in 1993 by a training on the kind ofscientific and economic indicators
programme for the managers of the biosphere which may be used to evaluate the performance
reserves in Indiaat Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary of a wide range of projects. These range from
in Nilgiri BR, which provided an opportunity for country-specific biodiversity indicators like
BR
obtaining further inputs on the programme. percentage of major forest, types covered in a
Hans Raj Negi ofCES conducted extensive field protected area network, as suggested by IUCN,
BR
research in the Nandadevi during the years to broader region-oriented measures like change
1994to 1997. in institutional or management structures leading
Subsequently, the Biosphere Reserve to change in resource utilisation practices. These
Programme was once again reviewed by CES in indicators have been extensively applied to assess
RANWA,
collaboration with an environmental the efficacy offunds provided atthe international
group, in 1996-98 as a part of the Biodiversity level, both by specialised funding mechanisms
Conservation Prioritisation Programme (BCPP) of like the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and by
WWF-India. Underthis programme, collaborative bilateral donor organisations and aid agencies like
field visits were undertaken in the following DANIDA and NORAD. Of late, there is also a
Biosphere Reserves: tendency to use indicators sensitive to equity
concerns, specifically from the angles ofgender
Biosphere Reserve Collaborator
and socially/economically disadvantaged
1) Gulf of Mannar Winfred Thomas, American communities.
College, Madurai, Tamil Nadu At the same time, there has also been a
2) Nandadevi Omprakash Bhatt, Dasholi major development in the economic and socio-
Gramswarajya Mandal, political theory in the area ofcost-benefit analysis
Chamoli, Uttaranchal
and broader evaluation techniques. The major
3) Nokrek Nature’s Beckon, Dhubri, Assam landmark in this regard would be the development
4) Manas Nature’s Beckon, Dhubri, Assam of the Guidelines for Project Evaluation by
5) Sundarban Silanjan Bhattacharyya, Kolkata, UNIDO, Vienna (Dasgupta et al. 1 972 ). These
West Bengal
guidelines spell outthe economic rationale behind
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THE INDIAN BIOSPHERE RESERVE PROGRAMME
project choice, evaluation and monitoring using Biosphere Reserve programme, as implemented
models of uncertainty and social choice. From in India.
then onwards, there has been a rapid growth of These indicators should, on the one hand,
understanding on the valuation of ecosystem test the efficiency of financial, technical and
functions(Barbier 1992, Dixon 1992) andthe social management inputs provided in terms ofa set of
consequences of disruptions of such functions carefully designed criteria, and on the other hand
(Ruitenbeek 1992, Munasinghe 1990). Also, one be adaptive enough to ground realities so as not
school ofeconomists, pioneered by Amartya Sen, to miss out relevant equity and social justice
have emphasised the use of discriminatory concerns. These concerns are almost always
analytical tools like weighted indices of human region and culture specific and, therefore, difficult
development to assess programme level to aggregate over projects. For example, increase
BR
interventions, since indices which are aggregative —in human-tigerconflicts in the Sundarban area
or even relative at an inappropriate scale tend to — and the resultant agony of local communities
suppress major equity and (re)distribution is now a part oflocal cultural ethos or even the
concerns. In his recent work development as mindscape oflocal communities. It is impossible
freedom, Sen (2000) advocates the use of to weigh this against reduced conflicts in other
analytical tools that view development as a areas or offset positive economic indicators
process of expanding substantive freedoms, against the psychological cost ofloss ofa family
reflected in socio-economic arrangements (e.g. memberor livingadifferently-abled life.
health and educational facilities) and political/civil The currently adopted evaluation
rights (e.g. the freedom to participate in public methodology could draw from the rich literature
discussion and scrutiny). Performance evaluation now available in a range ofdisciplines including
ofdevelopment interventions, when informed by social choice, information and uncertainty theory,
such a view, involves active consideration ofthe while the theoretical literature can be enriched
ability of an intervention to achieve tangible through the use of appropriate case studies and
enhancements in freedoms of the target groups, best practice lessons. International funding
such as increased capacities of individuals and mechanisms such as GEF do undertake programme
groups to indulge in public debate on issues that implementation reviews periodically; such
affect their livelihoods and lifestyles. reviews can also inform and enrich the theoretical
There is clearly a need to harmonise these literature in many of these fields. For instance,
two streams ofliterature in order to develop a set case examples ofhow communities do or do not
of responsive indicators for evaluation of exhibit group rationality when involved in a donor
interventions at project and programme levels. driven programme can be a key input to social
We make here a distinction between project and choice literature. In arid areas ofRajasthan, water
programme levels because project interventions harvesting initiatives supported by external
very often follow from strategies developed at funders have been most successful when local
the programme level. Thus, reasons for success communities have been mobilised by local NGOs
or failure of a specific project could lie both in to bear a significant component ofthe programme
problems intrinsic to the project itself or be the cost; in otherwords, the ability ofa community to
result ofincorrect strategisation or poor learning translate its group decision-making behaviour to
at a higher decision-making level which gets actual burden sharing (financial or otherwise) is a
reflected in project implementation phases. In this requisite to the sustained success of a resource
paper, our focus is on the use of indicators to ‘wise-use’ programme (Rajender Singh, Tarun
make a programme level evaluation of the Bharat Sangh, pers. comm.).
216 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, I00(2&3), AUG.-DEC. 2003
.
THE INDIAN BIOSPHERE RESERVE PROGRAMME
An attempt at harmonisation of these two indicators, using available information and
streams of literature on evaluation methodology insights gained from personal fieldwork. These
and Biosphere Reserves is made in the following are by no means exhaustive; rather they are
paragraphs, drawing from available case studies indicative ofhow a development intervention may
and personal experience ofthe authors with regard be evaluated in a responsive and adaptive way.
to the Indian Biosphere Reserve Programme.
Extent of awareness about goals of the
The Case of Indian Biosphere Reserves programme atvarious hierarchical levels
Changes in levels of information about
Biosphere Reserves, as mentioned earlier, are programme objectives and implementation at
areas ofterrestrial and coastal/marine ecosystems various hierarchical levels would be an important
oracombinationthereof, earmarked for innovative indicator of management capacity and
conservation and management (an alternative to effectiveness. In the context of Biosphere
the National Park/Wildlife Sanctuary model) and Reserves, such an understanding is, to a great
motivated by the framework ofUNESCO’s Man extent, available at international and national
and Biosphere Programme. Each Biosphere levels, but not at the State or local levels. Indeed,
Reserve is intendedto fulfil three co—mplementary the ability of local people to appreciate the
functions: a conservation function to preserve objectives of a development intervention is a
genetic resources, species, ecosystems and requisite for their involvement at various levels
landscapes; a development function; and a ofplanning and implementation. Our experience
—
logistic support function to support suggests that people living inside a Biosphere
demonstration projects, environmental education Reserve areararely have any idea ofthe objectives
and so on. Biosphere Reserves are not covered of the programme, though people are more
by an international convention, but must meet a conscious of other conservation categories, like
set ofcriteria allowingthem to fulfil properly their National Park, overlapping with a BR area.
three functions. A number ofBiosphere Reserves Moreover, there is often a different kind of
simultaneously encompass areas protected under understanding available at the local level that does
other systems (such as national parks or nature not get transferred upwards. For example, in the
reserves) and other internationally recognised Nandadevi BR, banning of seasonal grazing in
sites such as Ramsar wetland sites. the alpine meadows, locally called bugyals inside
,
India launched its own Biosphere Reserve the BR (core area) has affected traditional
Programm—e in 1979. Currently, 11 Biosphere livelihoods; at the same time, locals believe that
Reserves Nilgiri, Nandadevi, Nokrek, Gulfof this has reduced the diversity ofmedicinal herbs,
Mannar, Manas GreatNicobar, Sundarban, Dibru- replacing them with extensive growth of a few
—
,
Saikhowa, Simlipal, Dehang Debang and species a development not accounted for in
Pachmarhi operate in India. In addition, Namdapha, plans decided higher up (Hans Raj Negi, pers.
Valley of Flowers, Thar Desert, Rann of Kutch, comm.)
Kanha and the North Islands of Andaman have
been identified by the Indian Man and Biosphere Incorporation oflocal management and cultural
(MAB) committee as potential sites for BRs. practices
The extent to which this network of BRs The degree to which a development
has fulfilled its multiple objectives could be intervention incorporates existing management
evaluated using a carefully selected set of and cultural practices could be an indicator ofits
indicators. We provide below a sample of such responsiveness. The costs imposed on specific
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THE INDIAN BIOSPHERE RESERVE PROGRAMME
communities as aresult ofa course ofaction taken pointing to the disappearance ofseveral medicinal
at a large physical (and hierarchical) distance are plant species. Such knowledge almost never plays
typically undervalued. In this regard, the Indian a meaningful role in management plans for Indian
Biosphere Reserve Programme seems to have BRs.
performed poorly as there have been few
systematic studies in this area (an ongoing study- Enhancement ofentitlements
BR
on Bhotias, a nomadic tribe in Nandadevi Improved access to a basket of goods and
undertaken by the Wildlife Institute of India is a services consistent with livelihood needs
notable exception). Consequently, development indicates the success ofthe development function
plans have gone haywire; tribes like Shompens, of Biosphere Reserves. However, this kind of
for example, have refused to accept a development indicator is to be used with caution when the
model based on improved access to amenities alternative livelihood activity imposes non-
unrelated to theircultural perceptions. Ecotourism monetised costs on specific communities. Thus,
plans have similarly missed outthe need to merge loss offamily members due to dependence on a
local cultural practices (represented through hazardous activity needs to be suitably weighted
performing arts, for example) as a part of the against additional income generation. In other
development strategy. words, additional incomes, as Sen (2000) argues,
In many cases, locally evolved conservation need to create an expansion of‘human freedoms’
practices still continue in a limited way. The Bodo and elimination of ‘human unfreedoms’.The
tribals in the Manas BR ar—ea protect parts ofthe ‘unfreedoms’ are typically imposed by historical
forest as sacred groves a practice which disadvantages or ecological vulnerability. The
harmonises well with the concepts ofsupply and Indian Biosphere Reserves seem to have
safety forests. The Bodos also maintain their performed well on the income generation criteria
traditional varieties of crop species (whereas alone but not so much when judged by the costs-
Assamese, Bengali and Nepali settlers in the area imposed criterion.
have taken to cultivating high yielding varieties), In income generation activities, the role
while the Bodo practices still continue. Bhotias played by voluntary agencies deserves mention.
of the Nandadevi BR area graze their livestock In the Sundarban BR (SBR) area, a number of
NGOs
and collect medicinal herbs from alpine meadows, currently operate, most notably the
maintaining an optimum grazing level to ensure a Ramkrishna Mission Lok Shiksha Parishad
continued supply of herbs.The closure of the (RMLSP) and the Tagore Society for Rural
core zone ofNandadevi BR to human activities Development (TSRD). Both these organisations
has deprived local communities oftheirtraditional play a potent role in makingpeople appreciate the
health practices. development objectives ofSundarban BR. TSRD,
There is also significant local knowledge for example, has set up handloom weaving and
available with fisherfoik all over India. The honey processing units in the Sundarban BR area,
fisherfolk on Moyar in the Nilgiri BR are able to with a view to providing alternative employment
describe in great detail the time course ofsiltation opportunities (alternative to uncontrolled
and shallowing of the river stream and the brackish water aquaculture and forest based
consequent changes in fish fauna. However, very livelihoods). These units serve an important
little official documentation is available on the development function, relieving pressures on
aquatic ecosystems of most Indian BRs. Again, forest based occupations and reducing human
BR
herders in Nandadevi narrate the changes in hazards due to human-wildlife tensions. Similarly,
the alpine meadows following the grazing ban, RMLSP works in direct collaboration with the
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THE INDIAN BIOSPHERE RESERVE PROGRAMME
Sundarban BR directorate to involve local people Absence of employment options during
in the social forestry programme and other eco- slack periods has, for example, led to frequent
development activities. This is a step in favour of people-tiger conflicts in the Sundarban BR.
merging the conservation and development Sundarbans, the only mangrove habitat with a
functions of BRs, though an overwhelming tiger population, has an interesting ecological
majority of farmers are totally ignorant of such history. The British government had settled large
efforts. This leads us to the issue ofstrengthening numbers of landless people from Midnapore
BR
extension functions of a programme; at the district and the neighbouring state of Orissa, in
programme level, inadequate attention given to the area, to maximise revenue earnings from the
resource based extension activities reduces the land. When Project Tiger was launched in 1973
impact of the interventions being implemented and access to the forest was curtailed, little
by the non-governmental sector. attention was paid to the biomass needs of the
BR
While the Sundarban has successfully local population and major livelihood activities
created income opportunities through like NTFP collection were compromised. Prawn
agriculture, aquaculture and cottage industries, fishing gradually became the major livelihood
it has failed to reduce man-tiger conflicts due to activity but in the absence ofgenuine alternatives
continued dependence of the Tiger Reserve in the slack season, people still entered the forest.
fringe population on non timber forest produces Man-tiger conflicts became frequent enough to
(NTFPs). In the Sundarbans, about a million turn tigers into man-eaters. Man-crocodile
people living close to the Project Tiger area have conflicts also increased due to over-dependence
been heavily deprived ofaccess to theirtraditional of local people on fishing. The typical approach
resource bases inside the forest areas, due to to resolving these problems has been to try to
restrictions imposed by the project. This change the behaviour of tigers, so that they do
suggests that income generation schemes have not attack humans. Efforts to check the aggression
not harmonised well with traditional liveli- oftigers have included schemes in which tigers
hoods or have been planned on an inadequate are habituated to drink fresh water (based on the
scale. view that drinking ofsalt water is the cause ofthe
Moreover, human development as unusual aggression ofSundarban tigers). The root
measured by access to a bundle ofamenities like solution to the problem lies in tailoring the
healthcare, primary education and development functions ofthe BR programme to
telecommunication is not seen as an integral part create long-term livelihood options forthe people
ofthe development component ofthe Biosphere affected by these conflicts.
Reserve strategy, especially in remote areas of Manas BRalso overlaps with aTiger Reserve
Nokrek andNandadevi BR. area which does not have a buffer zone on its
southern periphery. Consequently, man-tiger
People-nature conflicts conflicts are very common, as human habitations
The degree to which conflicts between a abut on restricted areas. Man-crocodile conflicts
community and its resource catchment zone, pose a major problem in Great Nicobar BR as all
defined by livelihood imperatives, are reduced due rivers in the region have significant crocodile
to a development intervention would be an populations. Indeed, most Indian BRs have failed
indicator of its sustainability and effectiveness. to reduce such conflicts because of inadequate
On this count, Indian Biosphere Reserves have integration of its development goals with the
clearly failedwith such conflicts reported from six conservation goals ofthe legally conserved areas
ofthem. with which they overlap.
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THE INDIAN BIOSPHERE RESERVE PROGRAMME
Management Plans in degraded forest patches around villages in the
Biosphere Reserve area. Similarly, in the Gulfof
Legal framework Mannar BR, the key island ofKrusadai in the BR
The extent to which the legal framework in a core zone is under the control of the Fisheries
country harmonises with an intervention is an Department, which is carrying a programme of
indicator of its effectiveness. The Indian legal establishing aquaculture practices. Oyster
system, for example, recognises National Parks culturing is also carried out on a commercial scale
and Wildlife Sanctuaries, but not Biosphere on the island. In the Manas Biosphere Reserve, a
Reserves, as legal entities and thus imposes seed farm is functioning in an area of 900 ha in
purely conservation-oriented restrictions on the core zone which used to be prime grassland
protected areas. Biosphere Reserves frequently habitat for several endangered species.
overlap with such protected areas and However, there are also instances where
consequently are governed by the relevant laws, successful programmes conceived outside the BR
which may not be compatible with the BR arrangement have been meshed into a BR area.
programme objectives. This leads, for example, to For example, the Joint Forest Management (JFM)
total prohibition ofeconomic activities like grazing programme in West Bengal has been launched in
BR
in Nandadevi BR, as mentioned earlier, depriving the Sundarban in collaboration with the
a community of its livelihood and development Sundarban Development Board and local NGOs.
needs. Forest Protection Committees (FPCs) in the area
Simultaneously, zonation based on short- are now protecting mangrove patches in the
term calculations has led to severe imbalances in barren mudflats and barren intertidal spaces
several areas. Inthe Manas BR, forexample, paddy between embankments.
fields and tea estates extend right up to the
southern boundary core zone of the designated Efficacy ofdevelopment plans
Tiger Reserve. Till about two decades ago, this The efficacy of development plans is an
area was mostly covered by grasslands and important indicator ofthe BR programme. BRs,
deciduous forests and was inhabited by a few by definition, need to fulfil integrated
Bodo tribals. Today, refugees from neighbouring conservation and development objectives.
Bangladesh have settled in these areas. An area Whether funds and equipment intended to fulfil
which could have been a natural buffer between the development goals actually enhance
the densely populated Brahmaputra Valley and capabilities of target groups is the key question
the Tiger Reserve area is now deforested and here. In general, the funds made available by the
cultivated. MoEF forthe BR programme have rarely reached
target groups because of a general lack of
Inter-agency collaboration awareness about the objectives of funding both
The extent to which various government among the implementors and the target groups.
departments and agencies coordinate among In the Nandadevi BR, the Forest Department was
themselves in the implementation ofa programme provided with vehiclesto prevent illegal poaching,
also indicates its effectiveness. The Indian but the vehicles could hardly reach the trouble
Biosphere Reserve programme seems to have spots due to the mountainous terrain, and
performed inadequately in this regard. Thus, there poaching ofmusk deer and illegal export ofmusk
is a lack ofcoordination between the Sundarban to neighbouring countries still continues from
Development Board (SDB) and the Forest Pithoragarh area. It is also reported that television
VCR
Department on the issue ofmangrove plantation and sets meantto screen documentary films
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THE INDIAN BIOSPHERE RESERVE PROGRAMME
for awareness creation in the area were actually The Forest Departments too, normally have very
used by local politicians to show commercial films scanty information about these resources, and
to bag votes in the elections. the only source of information is possibly the
There are other examples of misplaced local collectors. With no mechanism to involve
priorities. Bhotias, the local shepherds in the these local people in managing these
BR
Nandadevi were randomly provided with fuel bioresources, the present trends clearly support
,
efficient chullahs which would consume less the short-term profit making behaviour of
wood and check deforestation. However, the local commercial interests. In GulfofMannar BR, the
people ofthe area found these ofhardly any use; fishing trawlers from outside countries exploit
since they needed big fires to tackle the severe more fishes in lesser time. Also several demand
cold, which these chullahs could not provide. In driven activities like pearl fishing, and export of
the Sundarban BR too, the experiment with fuel white and black sea cucumbers as a food delicacy
efficient chullahs largely failed because the local to Southeast Asian countries continues. Similarly,
people were given practically no training on how exploitation of seafood like crabs and lobsters
to use them and ultimately, the chullah chimneys continues to supply the demand from countries
came to be used as farm implements. like Japan.
Negative environmental impacts ofactivities
Scientific research dictated by the external economy need to be
Capacity building and demonstration tackled underthe BRprogramme. Inthe Sundarban
objectives of Biosphere Reserves may be BR, for instance, the local people collect prawn in
evaluated through the extent ofongoing scientific juvenile stages for aquaculture. In the process,
research. The Indian Biosphere Reserves have other small fish and crustaceans are incidentally
performed fairly well in this regard, when each destroyed. Furthermore, ponds constructed to
Reserve is taken separately. However, there has store the prawn seeds breach the embankments
been no attemptto create an integrated information which are essential for keeping out saline water
system for the entire network. Also, while major from the cultivated land. No government agency
biological or socio-economic studies are going has so far paid attention to the issue, although a
on in many of the BRs, multifaceted research few local NGOs have expressed concern. The
integrating ecological, social and management basis of BR management needs to be broadened
imperatives seemto be lacking except in theNilgiri to address these issues.
BR where the Kerala Forest Research Institute A related issue is the extent to which BRs
(KFR1) and the Indian Institute of Science, create new conflicts or alleviate or accentuate
Bangalore have an active research presence. existing conflicts among resource users. In the
— Manas BR, for instance, a state sponsored seed
Outer links interaction with the larger farm exists in the core zone. This farm largely
economy employs urban people and caters to the demands
BRs should aim at developing systems that of urban centres in the Brahmaputra Valley. The
enhance positive interactions with the larger local Bodo tribals who live on the fringes are left
A
economy. significant area ofsuch interaction is out of the process, resulting in insurgent
the development of good information on tendencies.
medicinal plant resources. However, Central Similarly, in Nandadevi BR, excessive
Institutes entrusted with this job (such as the touristtraffic around pilgrimage areas creates great
Central Institute ofMedicinal and Aromatic Plants) pressure on local resources like fuelwood and
seem to have no interaction with BR authorities. generates large amounts ofsolid waste. However,
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THE INDIAN BIOSPHERE RESERVE PROGRAMME
a summary ban on trekking in the core area has resource access. Special attention should be paid
hampered the local economy. In this situation, to ecologically or socially disadvantaged groups.
carefully planned ecotourism orecotrekkingcould Local shepherds in the Nandadevi BR are a case
be organised rather than going for a summary in point. These people traditionally depend on
ban on trekking, while allowing uncontrolled their livestock for their livelihood. Collection of
pilgrimtraffic. medicinal herbs is a secondary activity. They live
in arelatively closed society with limited external
Responsive Indicators links. An intervention that aims at meeting a
broader conservation objective needs to carefully
A robust programme level evaluation ofthe address community needs such as alternative
Biosphere Reserve Strategy calls for more livelihoods. Our indicator should necessarily
information with regard to a much wider set of disaggregate these communit—ies and their needs.
scientific indicators. However, our snapshot view —In this case, the intervention banning ofgrazing
suggests that the system of indicators should be failed notjust in addressingthe local livelihood
responsive enough to address specific concerns issue but also in taking into account local
of ecologically handicapped communities such ecological understanding. For instance, moderate
as those facing major conflicts with wildlife. level of grazing maintains herb diversity and
The following issues could dictate the contributes to local medicinal practices.
choice ofindicator methodology: c) Participatory process documentation
a) Indicators need to be discriminatory at built into a project implementation plan could
stress and response level, alternatively in the generate valuable information on local conflict
baseline and project scenarios. Ecosystems are resolution, innovative cultural practices, etc.
subject to varied amounts of stress based on a Indicators could assess impact of interventions
range of social and ecological factors. For on these issues. It is common for development
instance, much of the Sundarban BR area was projects to be planned from above and evaluated
historically subject to severe population from above. Even indices for participation in the
pressures due to settlements driven by a project are calculated through limited appraisal
revenue-maximisingpolicy adopted by the British exercises planned at higher official levels. What
government. An indicator ofcapabilities should is needed is an in-built Monitoring and Evaluation
be sensitive (discriminatory) to stresses of this strategy where local people would be able to
kind. It should be able to assess whether the BR continually evaluate the development
strategy has been able to address this specific intervention through participatory processes.
local condition. As we have mentioned, judging Biodiversity Registers could be a possible tool
BR
by this criterion, Sundarban has failed to forthis. Local people could be involved by teams
reduce man-wildlife conflicts in the area due to of local college/school teachers and students or
lack of employment alternatives (in the slack local NGOs in a participatory documentation
season) even though statistics of overall exercise regarding status of biodiversity,
employment creation for Sundarban BR give a management practices, development aspirations,
favourable picture. etc. This process could be repeated for a set of
b) Development interventions need to indicators periodically to assess project
improve access to an appropriate resource bundle performance.
sustainably across communities. Thus, indicators The major challenge becomes the use of
are to be community- (or user group-) specific an adaptive evaluation methodology sensitive
rather than aggregative when dealing with to the proximate concerns ofstakeholder groups.
222 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(2&3), AUG.-DEC. 2003
THE INDIAN BIOSPHERE RESERVE PROGRAMME
The typical logical framework adopted by the another thrust area. As we have mentioned, local
World Bank and other donor agencies often people often have a strong ecological perspective
misses out an analysis of the appropriate on issues like grazing of livestock; this is not
disaggregration level (See Table 1). This paper accounted for in plans decided by higher officials.
suggests amodified frame incorporatingthis need, Conflicts on resource use, as between Bodos and
which should lead to a more responsive urban people in Manas BR, need to be carefully
BR
evaluation offunding efficacy. addressed in plans. For instance, the creation
BR
of the Orinoco-Casiquiare in Venezuela,
Lessons Learnt covering 83,000 sq. km of rainforest area was a
response to concerns ofYanomani and Wekuana
Biosphere Reserves are eminently suited tribals regarding development of the area by
to fulfil our obligations under the Convention on outside interests. The presidential decree that
Biological Diversity which stresses on established this BR states measures to protect
conservation and sustainable use ofbiodiversity the traditional livelihoods of the tribal
and equitable sharing of the benefits flowing communities and acknowledges their land
therefrom. Biosphere Reserve, as a model for ownership rights. The decree also prohibits any
conservation and development, is undoubtedly colonisation of the area or any other interven-
a viable alternative to the protected area based tions that violate the rights of the communities
approach which stresses conservation at the (http://nativenet.uthscsa.edU/archive/nl/9 lb/
expense oflivelihood options ofpeople. However, 0307.html
).
as our study shows, the BR model needs to Currently, 356 BRs are designated in 90
overcome several difficulties if it has to be countries as part ofthe international network of
effectively applied. On the one hand, it needs to BRs. However, participation ofaBR inthenetwork
be integrated with various regional planning is voluntary. Only three out ofIndia’s eleven BRs
processes; on the other, the implementers need are currentlyofficial members ofthe network. Such
to clearly understand its objectives and percolate networking would be crucial to fulfil the logistic
these down to target groups. support role ofBRs.
The emergent possibilities in the field of The Global Environment Facility with a
biotechnology have made scientific research and $2.75 billion replenishment in 1998 is currently
good information management all the more emerging as the major funding mechanism for
important. Aswementionedearlier, while individual biodiversity. Funding from UNESCO’s regular
BRs have taken up isolated research programmes, programme has progressively decreased overthe
there is no attempt to organise resource data at years, reaching a modest amount of$300,000 in
higherlevels. InCosta Rica, forexample,the INBIO 1995. The GEF, on the otherhand, allocated $600
institution is engaged in fulltime screening of million to biodiversity during its first (post-pilot)
biodiversity ofthe country’s forests and Japan has phase (1994-97). The GEF is progressively
set up an institute for marine biodiversity stressing on funding integrated conservation-
prospecting in Micronesia. Indiaisrich in traditional development projects as opposed to those based
use-related knowledge ofvarious medicinal plants on protected areas. The present funding climate
BR
and similar activities ought to be organised as part thus favours a renewed interest in the model.
of the BR programme to take advantage of its BR projects thus need to be streamlined to meet
megadiversity status. the emerging funding criteria and the BR
Promotion of the involvement of local philosophy needs to be embedded in country
people in management of BRs ought to be priorities.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(2&3), AUG.-DEC. 2003 223