Controversial Advertising in the UK

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Controversial advertising in the UK : its regulation and
practitioner ethical decision making
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Farrell, Thomas Anthony (2012). Controversial advertising in the UK : its regulation and practitioner ethical
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Controversial Advertising in the UK: Its Regulation
and Practitioner Ethical Decision Making
By
Thomas Anthony Farrell
BSc MA PGCE MSc
Thesis sutfnitted in accordance:w~¥)h¢ requirements of
I ..... .
The Open uriiversit.Y~:::,\ tO>4r';,""Wthe'degree of Doctor of Philosophy
!
Marketing and Strategy Research Unit, The Open University Business School,
The Open University, Milton Keynes, MK7 6AA, United Kingdom
September 2012
The copyright ofthis thesis belongs to the author Tom Farrell under the terms ofthe UK Copyright, Designs and Patents
Act 1998. Pre-acknowledgement must always be made ofthe use ofany material contained inorderived from this thesis.
- - 1- -
APPENDECIES NOT DIGITISED AT THE
REQUEST OF THE AWARDING
UNIVERSITY
Abstract
Controversial Advertising in the UK-
Its Regulation and Practitioner Ethical Decision Making
Tom Farrell, the Open University, UK September 2012
This thesis explores the phenomena of controversial advertising, its regulation, and the
ethical dimensions of its practice in a UK context. The £19bn advertising industry is a
major contributor to the British economy, helping to stimulate consumer demand, market
competition and employment (IPA, 2012). Despite these benefits, advertising is often
criticised for its negative social consequences. Controversial advertisers utilise content or
tactics that breach acceptable standards of society (Harker et aI., 2005). Controversial
advertising practices include: shocking, offensive or distressing content or tactics (Waller
et aI., 2005b); deceptive or misleading advertising claims (Preston, 1996); or harmful
social consequences (Pollay, 1986). The UK advertising industry use self-regulation via
voluntary codes of practice to maintain acceptable standards; address stakeholder
complaints and forestall government intervention (CAP, 2012). Before advertising is
placed, media clearance and pre-vetting procedures are also common. However, despite
these controls, over 25,000 complaints are received by the Advertising Standards Authority
(ASA) every year and on average 2,500 campaigns annually are found in breach of the
code (ASA, 2012). This raises questions as to the ethics of controversial advertising
practice and the effectiveness of its regulation. This research employs exploratory
interpretive methods to makes sense of practitioner ethical decision making (EDM)
involved in creating, pre-vetting and regulating controversial UK advertising. New
findings highlight the importance of proactive clearance rather than post-complaint
regulation. The code of advertising represents a fluctuating line to be pushed at, rather than
acting as a moral brake on malpractice. Practitioner EDM is built from the collective
interactions of actors, not the actions of individual decision makers or organisations, thus
advertising practitioners become myopic to their stakeholder responsibilities. The thesis
presents",a new 360 degree model of the advertising process from creation through to
regulation. The research has important implications for academic, marketing and
advertising and regulatory practitioners.
KEYWORDS:
~arketing, Advertising, Controversial, Regulation, Clearance, Practitioner,
Ethical, Decision-making, 360-Degree. ,
- - 2 --
Table of Contents
Title Page - - 1--
Abstract - - 2 - -
List of Tables - 6 -
List of Figures - 7-
List of Abbreviations - 8-
Acknowledgements - 10 -
Preface - 11 -
Chapter 1:Introduction - 12-
1.1Research Rationale - - 13- -
------------------
1.2 Background to the Research - - 14- -
1.3 Academic Positioning of the Research - - 18--
1.4 Contributions of the Research - - 21 - -
1.5 Organisation of the Thesis - - 21 - -
Chapter 2: Controversial Advertising and its Regulation -A Literature Review-- 25-
2.1 Introduction - - 25 - -
---------------------
2.2 Regulating Controversial Advertising- - - 26 - -
2.2.1 The UK. Advertising Self-regulation System - - 28 - -
2.3 Advertising Clearance and Player Roles - - 33 - -
2.4 The Nature of Controversial Advertising - - 37 --
2.4.1 Controversial Advertising and Complaint Activity in the UK - 38 -
2.4.2 Defining and Categorising Controversial Advertising - - 41 --
2.4.3 Nature of Complaints and Complainants - - 44 --
2.4.4 Controversial Themes and Tactics in UK Advertising - - 46 - -
2.5 Summary - - 51 - -
Chapter 3: Practitioner Ethical Decision Making -A Literature Review - 52-
3.1 Introduction - 53 -
3.2 Ethical Decision Making in Business - 54 -
3.3 Modelling Individual Ethical Decision Making - 57 -
3.4 Measuring Practitioner Ethical Decision Making - 63 -
3.4.1 Individual Characteristics Influencing Practitioner EDM - 63 -
3.4.2 Situational Influences on Practitioner EDM - 68-
3.4.3 Measuring Organisational Influences on Practitioner EDM - 71 -
3.4.3.1 Formal Systems' Influences on Practitioner EDM - 72-
3.4.3.2 Informal Systems' Influence on Practitioner EDM - 75 -
3.4.4 Measuring the Influence ofIssue-related factors on Practitioner EDM - 77 -
3.5 Critiques ofEDM Models, Measures and Methods - 80-
3.6 New Directions in EDM Research - 84-
--3--
3.7 Summary - 92-
--------------------------------------------
Chapter 4: Methodology - 93-
4.1 Introduction - - 94 - -
4.2 Research Paradigms - - 95 - -
4.3 Rationale for Methodological Choices - - 97 - -
4.4 Justification for the Use of Qualitative Methodologies in this Research _ - - 102 - -
4.5 Research Methods and Process -- 107 - -
4.5.1. Secondary Research _ Exploring the Field - - 107 --
4.5.2. Gaining Ethics Approval for the Primary Research - - 112 --
4.5.3. Sampling and Selection of Participants - - 113 - -
4.5.4. Negotiating Access to Organisations ' - ..116 - -
4.5.5. Data Collection Interviews - - 121 - -
4.5.6. Data Analysis (Coding and Pattern Matching) - - 124 --
4.6 Validity and Reliability of the Research Process - - 127 - -
4.7 Researcher Reflections and Reflexivity - - 129 --
4.8 Summary - - 132 - -
Chapter 5: Findings -The Advertising Creation, Clearance Regulation Process - 133-
5.1 Introduction - - 134 - -
5.2 Mapping the Advertising Production and Regulation Process - 135 -
5.3 The Stages of the Advertising Process - 137 -
5.4 The 6Cs Process of UK Advertising Regulation in Detail - 146 -
5.4.1 The Creation Phase [Cl] - 147 -
5.4.2 The Clearance Stage [C2] - 151 -
5.4.3 The Communication Stage [C3] - 155 -
5.4.4 The Complaint Stage [C4] - 156 -
5.4.5 The Compliance Stage [C5] - 159-
5.4.6 The Control Stage [C6] - 165 -
5.5 The Concept of 360-degree Advertising Creation, Regulation and Control_ - 167 -
5.6 Summary - 171 -
Chapter 6: Findings - The Problem of Controversial Advertising - 172-
6.1 Introduction - 173 -
6.2 Understanding Controversial Advertising: Macro &Micro Issues - 174-
6.2.1 Macro-social issues: Causes and scale of problem and its regulationn - 174-
6.2.2 Micro-campaign issues:Negotiating through the stages of the process - 185 -
6.3 Assessing the Line between Acceptable and Unacceptable Advertising _ - 192 -
-6.3.1Assessing 'the Line': The Marketers' and Advertising Agency View - 193 -
6.3.2 Assessing 'the Line': The Regulators' View - 202 -
6.4 The Implications of Controversial Advertising - 206 -
6.5 Controversial Advertising: Consequences for Stakeholders - 210-
6.6 Positioning Problems of Controversy in Advertising - 213 -
6.7 Summary - 216-
- - 4 --
Chapter 7: Findings - EDM - A Practitioner Perspective - 217 -
7.1 Introduction - 218 -
--------------------------------------
7.2 Formal versus Informal Processes and Ethical Reasoning - 218 -
7.2.1 Formal Ethical Decision Making and Codes - 219-
7.2.2 Informal Ethical Negotiations and Pragmatism - 224-
7.3 Assessing the Ethical Framing of Practitioner Decision Making - 233 -
7.4 The Role of Precedence - 242-
7.5 Summary - 247 -
Chapter 8: Summary and Conclusions - 248-
8.1 Introduction - 249 -
------------------------------------------
8.2 Summary of Main Findings - 249-
8.2.1 The Advertising and Regulation Process - 250 -
8.2.2 Controversial Advertising - 251 -
8.2.3 Ethical Decision Making in Practice - 255 -
8.3 Contributions of the Thesis - 256 -
8.3.1 Contribution to Theory - 256 -
8.3.2 Contributions to Practice - 260 -
8.4 Limitations of the Thesis - 263 -
8.5 Implications for Future Research, Policy and Practice - 264 -
8.6 Thesis Conclusion - 271 -
Epilogue - 272 -
Appendices - 273 -
Appendix I: Examples of Controversial Advertising (1) -274-
Appendix II: Examples of Controversial Advertising (2) - 275 -
Appendix III: Ethics Approval - 276 -
Appendix IV: Informant Recruitment Documentation - 277 -
Appendix V: Informed Consent Documentation - 278 -
Appendix VI: Interview Schedule and Themes - 279 -
Appendix VII: Participant Matrix - 280 -
Appendix VIII: Coding Process Summary - 281 -
'"
Appendix IX: Coding Process using NVivo Software - 282 -
---------------
Appendix X: Sample of Template Analysis - 283-
Appendix XI: Sample Cross-Case Coding Analysis (Page 1of 3) - 284 -
Appendix XII: UK & European Advertising Organisations -287 -
References -----------------~------- -290 -
--5--
List of Tables
Table 2.1: Primary Concerns of Players in the Clearance Process - - 35 --
Table 2.2: Top 10Controversial UK Adverts since 2000 - - 49 --
Table 2.3: Controversial UK Advertising by Complaint Type (2010) - 50 --
Table 3.1: Ethical Philosophies Used in Business Decisions - 55-
Table 3.2: Jones's (1991) Characteristics of Moral Intensity ofa Moral Issue - 62-
Table 4.1: Secondary Data Sources - - 109 --
Table 4.2: Excerpts from the British Code of Advertising - 111 -
Table 4.3: Summary of Primary Sources - Participating Organisations - 120 -
Table 4.4: Summary of Primary Sources - Participants and Their Role Types - 120-
Table 4.5: Triangulation methods used in this research using Denzin's Typology. - - 128 --
Table 5.1: Advertising Decision-making Players -136-
Table 5.2: Defining the 6Cs Process Stages - 145-
Table 5.3: Background Data for Case organisations used to illustrate the 6Cs Model.- 146-
Table 6.1; Categorisation of Controversial Advertising - 191 -
Table 8.1: Practitioner Strategies to promote Responsible Advertising Practice - 269 -
-- 6--
List of Figures
Figure 1.1: UK Advertising Expenditure by Media 2005-10 - - 15- -
Figure 1.2: Organisation ofThesis - - 22 - -
Figure 2.1: Extract from the Original UK Advertising Code (1924) - - 29 --
Figure 2.2: UK Advertising Complaints Statistics (1997-2012) - -43 --
Figure 3.1: Rest's (1986) Ethical Decision-making Model - 58 -
Figure 3.2: Jones's (1991) Issue Contingent Model of Ethical Decision Making - 61 -
Figure 5.1: Players in the Process of Advertising Production and Control - 140 -
Figure 5.2: The 6Cs 360-degree Model of UK Advertising Regulation - 168 -
Figure 5.3: The 6Cs Process of Advertising Regulation in the UK {Detailed} - 170-
Figure 6.1: Positioning Controversial Advertising - 215 -
Figure 7.1: Dispersed Decisions Makers across the 6Cs Process - 219 -
--7--
List of Abbreviations
AA Advertising Association
AAC Advertising Advisory Committee
ACT Association of Commercial Television
AlG Advertising Information Group
ASA Advertising Standards Authority
ASBOF Advertising Standards Board of Finance
BACC British Advertising Clearance Centre
BARB British Audience Research Bureau
BASBOF Broadcast Advertising Standards Board of Finance
BBC British Broadcasting Corporation
BBFC British Board of Film Classification
BCAP Broadcasting Code of Advertising Practice
BMA British Medical Association
CAA Cinema Advertising Association
CAM Communication Advertising and Marketing Foundation
CAP Committee of Advertising Practice
CBA Commercial Broadcasters Association
CE The Concentration of Effect
Clearcast TV Advertising Clearance Centre (Formerly BACC)
CMD Cognitive Moral Development
CPTA Cosmetic, Toiletry and Perfumery Association
DMA Direct Marketing Association
EACA European Association of Communications Agencies
EASA European Advertising Standards Alliance
EDM Ethical Decision Making .-
ERA Electric Retailers Association UK
ESRC Economic and Social Research Council
EX-KIDS Time restriction on advertising being viewed by children '
--8--