Chemicals in the Aquatic Environment: Advanced Hazard Assessment

433 Pages·1989·10.81 MB·English

by  Lars Landner (auth.)

Springer Series on Environmental
Management
Robert S. DeSanto, Series Editor
Lars Landner (Ed.)
Chemicals in the
Aquatic Environment
Advanced Hazard Assessment
With 102 Figures
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York
London Paris Tokyo Hong Kong
Dr. Lars Landner
Swedish Environmental Research Group
Gotgatan 35
116 21 Stockholm
Sweden
ISBN-13:978-3-642-64796-3 e-ISBN-13:978-3-642-61334-0
DOl: 10.1007/978-3-642-61334-0
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© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1989
Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover lst edition 1989
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Series Preface
This series is dedicated to serving the growing community of scholars
and practitioners concerned with the principles and applications of
environmental management. Each volume is a thorough treatment of
a specific topic of importance for proper management practices. A
fundamental objective of these books is to help the reader discern and
implement man's stewardship of our environment and the world's
renewable resources. For we must strive to understand the relation
ship between man and nature, act to bring harmony to it, and nurture
an environment that is both stable and productive.
These objectives have often eluded us because the pursuit of other
individual and societal goals has diverted us from a course of living in
balance with the environment. At times, therefore, the environmental
manager may have to exert restrictive control, which is usually best
applied to man, not nature. Attempts to alter or harness nature have
often failed or backfired, as exemplified by the results of imprudent
use of herbicides, fertilizers, water, and other agents.
Each book in this series will shed light on the fundamental and
applied aspects of environmental management. It is hoped that each
will help solve a practical and serious environmental problem.
Robert S. DeSanto
East Lyme, Connecticut
Acknowledgments
The production of the new results presented in this book as well as the
writing of the book were made possible by a 5-year research grant to
the ESTHER Program provided by the Research Committee of the
National Swedish Environmental Protection Board, which is grate
fully acknowledged.
A great number of scientists, in addition to the authors of this
book, have given significant contributions to the successful outcome
of this project. In particular, we would like to thank Professor F. Bro
Rasmussen, Dr R. Lonngren, Dr FL. Mayer, Dr A. Mcintyre, Dr
JG. Sanders and Dr WMJ. Strachan, whose constant support and
advice to all researchers involved in the ESTHER Program has been
invaluable, as have their fruitful and inspiring comments during the
preparation of the book.
Special thanks are also extended to the Research Secretariate of
the National Swedish Environmental Protection Board for its skillful
assistance in administering a complex and sometimes chaotic research
program throughout its 5-year lifetime. Last but not least, we are very
grateful to Marie-Louise Harder, Eva Pettersson and Birgitta Wiklund
for their excellent help in preparing the final manuscript and to Vlf
Lofgren for his skill and professionalism in preparing many of the
graphs in the book.
Contents
Part I Background
1 Introduction
L.Landner . 2
1.1 Background. 2
1.2 Objectives.. 3
1.3 Working Program .. 3
1.4 Contents of the Book 4
References . . . . . . . . . . 5
2 Ecosystem Variability and Gradients. Examples from the
Baltic Sea as a Background for Hazard Assessment
E. Leppakoski and E. Bonsdorff (With 10 Figures) . . 6
2.1 Introduction............. 6
2.2 The Baltic Sea - a Sea of Gradients ..... 9
2.2.1 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.2 Physical and Chemical Gradients . 11
2.2.3 Biological Gradients . . . . . . . . 19
2.2.4 Forces Counteracting the General Patterns
of Gradients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2.4.1 Seasonal Variations. . . . . . . . . 22
2.2.4.2 Water Exchange and Circulation 23
2.2.4.3 Migrations............. 23
2.3 Acute, Chronic and Intermittent Exposure. 24
2.4 Test Organisms and Test Strategies . 26
2.5 Extrapolations............. 34
2.6 Field Validation ............ 37
2.6.1 General Considerations ........ 37
2.6.2 Eco-epidemiology. . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.6.3 Behavioral Aspects of Field Validation 40
2.6.4 Recovery Studies as a Tool in
Field Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.7 Environmental Gradients, Toxic Chemicals and Stress 43
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 47
x
Contents
3 The ESTHER Approach to Environmental Hazard Assess··
ment of Chemicals
L. Landner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.1 Testing and Hazard Assessment:
One Phase in the Decision Making on Chemicals . . 59
3.2 Initial Hazard Assessment of Chemicals -
the ESTHER Manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.2.1 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.2.2 Design ofthe ESTHER Manual for
Initial Hazard Assessment of Chemicals .. 62
3.3 Defining Targets of Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 63
3.3.1 General Aspects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 63
3.3.2 Rationale for Selecting Targets of Exposure 65
3.3.3 Possible Methodologies to Define Targets
of Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 65
3.4 Objectives of an Advanced Hazard Assessment . . .. 67
3.5 Major Differences Between Initial and Advanced
Hazard Assessment ................... 69
3.6 "The ESTHER Approach" . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 70
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 71
Part II Special Topics
4 Factors Determining the Fate of Organic Chemicals in the
Environment: the Role of Bacterial Transformations and
Binding to Sediments
A. H. Neilson (With 11 Figures) ...... . . . . . . 74
4.1 Introduction............. . . . . . .. 75
4.2 Experimental Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . .. 78
4.2.1 Chemical Considerations. . . . . . . . . 78
4.2.1.1 Quantification and Identification of
Substrates and Metabolites . . . . . . . . 79
4.2.1.2 Binding of Substrates and Metabolites:
Extraction Procedures ........... 79
4.2.2 Microbiological Considerations . . . . . 80
4.2.2.1 General Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.2.2.2 Experimental Aspects. . . . 81
4.3 Aerobic Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.3.1 Significant Areas . . . . . . 83
4.3.1.1 The Effect of Co-substrates:
Concurrent Metabolism .. 83
4.3.1.2 The Effect of Substrate Concentration and
Cell Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.3.1.3 Rates of Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.3.2 Problem Areas and Unresolved Issues ... 92
Contents XI
4.3.2.1 The Problem of Translating Laboratory
Data to Field Situations ......... 92
4.3.2.2 Aspects of Metabolism and Regulation . 94
4.4 Anaerobic Reactions . . . . . . 96
4.4.1 Significant Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.4.1.1 Metabolic Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.4.1.2 The Role and Significance of Syntrophy .. 99
4.4.2 Problem Areas and Unresolved Issues ... 100
4.4.2.1 The Stability of Consortia and Their Meta-
bolic Dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.4.2.2 The "Natural" Substrates for Growth. . .. 100
4.5 The Role of Sediments in Determining Environ
mental Fate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.5.1 Background ............ . 101
4.5.2 Sorption and Binding:
the Degree of Reversibility . . . . . 101
4.5.3 Some Important Unresolved Issues . . . . . 103
4.6 A Personal Summing-up . 104
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ..... 106
5 Bioavailability and Uptake of Xenobiotics in Fish
P. Part (With 3 Figures) 113
5.1 Introduction ................ . 113
5.2 Background ................. . 115
5.3 Physiological Factors Affecting the Uptake Rate 117
5.4 Pow Value Versus Rate of Uptake . .. . ... . 119
5.5 Importance of pH . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. . 121
5.6 General Discussion and Conclusions. .... . 123
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6 Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification of Hydrophobic
Persistent Compounds as Exemplified by Hexachloro
benzene
R Ekelund (With 5 Figu~s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.1 Uptake and Elimination Via the Water . . 128
6.2 Abiotic Environmental Factors Affecting
Bioavailability .............. . 134
6.3 Uptake and Passive Elimination Via the Food. . 135
6.4 Active Excretion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.5 Net Bioaccumulation and the Occurrence of Bio-
magnification . . 138
6.6 Conclusions... 144
References ...... . 145
XII Contents
7 Fish Bile Analysis for Monitoring of Low Concentrations of
Polar Xenobiotics in Water
L. Forlin and C. A. Wachtmeister (With 4 Figures) . . . . .. 150
7.1 Introduction....................... 151
7.2 Design of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 152
7.3 Chemical Synthesis and Analysis. . . . . . . . . . .. 153
7.3.1 Isotope-labeled 4,5,6-Trichloroguaiacol . .. 153
7.3.2 Chemical Analysis by Radiometric Tech-
niques .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 153
7.3.2.1 Content of 4,5,6-TCG in Water ....... 153
7.3.2.2 Content of Metabolites in Bile. . . . . . .. 154
7.4 Factors Affecting Regulation of Foreign Compounds
in FishBile ........................ 155
7.4.1 Biotransformation. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 155
7.4.1.1 In Vitro and in Vivo Metabolism of
4,5,6-TCG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 155
7.4.1.2 Enzyme Induction and Seasonal Variations 156
7.4.2 Fish Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 156
7.4.3 Fish Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 157
7.4.4 Nutrition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 157
7.5 Exposure ofFish to 4,5,6-TCG . . . . . . . . . . . .. 158
7.5.1 Short-term Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . .. 158
7.5.2 Long-term Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . .. 159
7.6 Field Application. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 161
7.7 Conclusions........................ 163
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 163
8 Ecological Concepts Important for the Interpretation of
Effects of Chemicals on Aquatic Systems
R. C. Petersen Jr. and L. B.-M. Petersen (With 10 Figures) 165
8.1 Introduction....................... 166
8.2 Assessment of Toxic Effects at the Population Level 167
8.2.1 Mortality Distribution in Aquatic Popula··
tions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 167
8.2.2 Compensatory Mortality in the Inter-
pretation of Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 170
8.2.3 The Survivor Effect at the Population
Level. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 176
8.3 Assessment of Toxic Effects at the Community Levl~l. 179
8.3.1 Community Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . .. 179
8.3.2 The Guild: A Community Tool for Com-
plex Ecological Interactions . . . . . . . .. 179
8.3.3 The Specialist-Generalist Concept Applied
to Hazard Assessment ............ 184
8.3.4 Role of Keystone Species in Effect Assess-
ment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 186
Contents XIII
8.3.5 The Survivor Effect at the Community
Level .................... . 188
8.4 Assessment of Effects at the Ecosystem Level . 189
8.4.1 Stress and Ecosystems ....... . 189
8.4.2 Cumulative Environmental Effects . 189
8.5 Decision Rules for Interpreting the Effects of
Chemicals. . . . .. . .... 190
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
9 Selected Assays for Health Status in Natural Fish
Populations
C. Haux and L. Forlin (With 1 Figure) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
9.1 Concepts in Health Monitoring ............ . 197
9.1.1 Effects Expressed at Different Biological
Levels .................... . 197
9.1.2 Criteria for Health Assays in Fish .. 199
9.2 Development of Health Assays . . . . . . . . . . 199
9.2.1 Level of Organization ......... . 199
9.2.2 Physiological Methods in Fish Health
Assessment ........... . 200
9.2.3 Laboratory Studies . . . . . . . . 200
9.2.4 Use of Physiological Methods in
Field Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
9.3 Assays for Health Status in Natural Fish Populations. 201
9.3.1 o-Aminolevulinic Acid Dehydratase ... . 201
9.3.2 Mixed Function Oxidase. .. . ..... . 202
9.3.3 Metallothionein . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 204
9.3.4 Smoltification in Salmonids . . . . . . . . 206
9.4 Future Development: Remarks and Recommenda-
tions ....... . 208
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
10 Community Testing, Microcosm and Mesocosm Experi
ments: Ecotoxicological Tools with High Ecologicai
Realism
L. Landner, H. Blanck, U. Heyman, A. Lundgren, M. Notini,
A. Rosemarin and B. Sundelin (With 16 Figures) ..... . 216
10.1 Introduction ..................... . 216
10.2 Strategies Used in Designing Multi-species Test Sys-
terns .......................... . 218
10.3 Shortcomings of Some Early Model Ecosystem
Designs ......................... . 220
10.4 Community Testing with Natural Associations of
Periphyton and Phytoplankton . . . . . . 221
10.4.1 Introduction .. . 221
10.4.2 Rationale ..... . 222