Chemical Principles: The Quest for Insight

1097 Pages·2016·239.683 MB·English

by  Peter Atkins (author), Loretta Jones (author), Leroy Laverman (author)

C
H E MICA L
P
RINCIPLES
THE QU E ST FOR INSIGHT
Seventh
Edition
PETER ATKINS
LORETTA JONES
LEROY LAVERMAN
Periodic Table of the Elements
H 1
hydrogen
Period 1
1.0079
Group 1 2 1s1
Li 3 Be 4
lithium beryllium
2
6.94 9.01
2s1 2s2
Na 11 Mg 12
sodium magnesium
3
22.99 24.31
3s1 3s2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
K 19 Ca 20 Sc 21 Ti 22 V 23 Cr 24 Mn 25 Fe 26 Co 27
potassium calcium scandium titanium vanadium chromium manganese iron cobalt
4
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.87 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.84 58.93
d
o 4s1 4s2 3d14s2 3d24s2 3d34s2 3d54s1 3d54s2 3d64s2 3d74s2
i
r
e
P Rb 37 Sr 38 Y 39 Zr 40 Nb 41 Mo 42 Tc 43 Ru 44 Rh 45
rubidium strontium yttrium zirconium niobium molybdenum technetium ruthenium rhodium
5
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 (98) 101.07 102.90
5s1 5s2 4d15s2 4d25s2 4d45s1 4d55s1 4d55s2 4d75s1 4d85s1
Cs 55 Ba 56 La 57 Hf 72 Ta 73 W 74 Re 75 Os 76 Ir 77
cesium barium lanthanum hafnium tantalum tungsten rhenium osmium iridium
6
132.91 137.33 138.91 178.49 180.95 183.84 186.21 190.23 192.22
6s1 6s2 5d16s2 5d26s2 5d36s2 5d46s2 5d56s2 5d66s2 5d76s2
Fr 87 Ra 88 Ac 89 Rf 104 Db 105 Sg 106 Bh 107 Hs 108 Mt 109
francium radium actinium rutherfordium dubnium seaborgium bohrium hassium meitnerium
7
(223) (226) (227) (265) (268) (271) (272) (270) (276)
7s1 7s2 6d17s2 6d27s2 6d37s2 6d47s2 6d57s2 6d67s2 6d77s2
Ce 58 Pr 59 Nd 60 Pm 61 Sm 62
Lanthanoids cerium praseodymium neodymium promethium samarium
6
(lanthanides) 140.12 140.91 144.24 (145) 150.36
4f15d16s2 4f36s2 4f46s2 4f56s2 4f66s2
Th 90 Pa 91 U 92 Np 93 Pu 94
Actinoids thorium protactinium uranium neptunium plutonium
7
(actinides) 232.04 231.04 238.03 (237) (244)
6d27s2 5f26d17s2 5f36d17s2 5f46d17s2 5f67s2
Molar masses (atomic weights) quoted to the number of
significant figures given here can be regarded as
typical of most naturally occurring samples.
Elements 113, 115, 117, and 118 have been identified but
not yet (in 2016) formally named.
18
He 2
helium
4.00
13 14 15 16 17 1s2
Metal B 5 C 6 N 7 O 8 F 9 Ne 10
boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon
Metalloid 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
2s22p1 2s22p2 2s22p3 2s22p4 2s22p5 2s22p6
Nonmetal
Al 13 Si 14 P 15 S 16 Cl 17 Ar 18
aluminum silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon
26.98 28.09 30.97 32.06 35.45 39.95
10 11 12 3s23p1 3s23p2 3s23p3 3s23p4 3s23p5 3s23p6
Ni 28 Cu 29 Zn 30 Ga 31 Ge 32 As 33 Se 34 Br 35 Kr 36
nickel copper zinc gallium germanium arsenic selenium bromine krypton
58.69 63.55 65.41 69.72 72.64 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
3d84s2 3d104s1 3d104s2 4s24p1 4s24p2 4s24p3 4s24p4 4s24p5 4s24p6
Pd 46 Ag 47 Cd 48 In 49 Sn 50 Sb 51 Te 52 I 53 Xe 54
palladium silver cadmium indium tin antimony tellurium iodine xenon
106.42 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.76 127.60 126.90 131.29
4d10 4d105s1 4d105s2 5s25p1 5s25p2 5s25p3 5s25p4 5s25p5 5s25p6
Pt 78 Au 79 Hg 80 Tl 81 Pb 82 Bi 83 Po 84 At 85 Rn 86
platinum gold mercury thallium lead bismuth polonium astatine radon
195.08 196.97 200.59 204.38 207.2 208.98 (209) (210) (222)
5d96s1 5d106s1 5d106s2 6s26p1 6s26p2 6s26p3 6s26p4 6s26p5 6s26p6
Ds 110 Rg 111 Cn 112 113 Fl 114 115 Lv 116 117 118
darmstadtium roentgenium copernicium flerovium livermorium
(281) (280) (285) (289) (293)
6d87s2 6d107s1 6d107s2 7s27p2 7s27p4
Eu 63 Gd 64 Tb 65 Dy 66 Ho 67 Er 68 Tm 69 Yb 70 Lu 71
europium gadolinium terbium dysprosium holmium erbium thulium ytterbium lutetium
151.96 157.25 158.93 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.04 174.97
4f76s2 4f75d16s2 4f96s2 4f106s2 4f116s2 4f126s2 4f136s2 4f146s2 5d16s2
Am 95 Cm 96 Bk 97 Cf 98 Es 99 Fm 100 Md101 No 102 Lr 103
americium curium berkelium californium einsteinium fermium mendelevium nobelium lawrencium
(243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262)
5f77s2 5f76d17s2 5f97s2 5f107s2 5f117s2 5f127s2 5f137s2 5f147s2 6d17s2
FREQUENTLY USED TABLES AND FIGURES
Page
Atomic and molecular properties
Atomic radii Fig. 1F.4 54
Ionic radii Fig. 1F.6 55
First ionization energies Fig. 1F.8 57
Electron affi nity Fig. 1F.12 59
Electronegativity Fig. 2D.2 97
Average bond lengths Table 2D.3 101
Ground-state electron confi gurations Appendix 2C A18
Th e elements (physical properties) Appendix 2D A19
Th ermodynamic properties
Standard enthalpies of physical change Table 4C.1 268
Lattice enthalpies Table 4E.1 291
Mean bond enthalpies Table 4E.3 293
Vapor pressure of water Table 5A.2 351
Th ermodynamic data Appendix 2A A9
Solutions
Acidity constants at 25 °C Table 6C.1 461
Basicity constants at 25 °C Table 6C.2 462
Acidity constants of polyprotic acids at 25 °C Table 6E.1 483
Solubility products Table 6I.1 524
Electrochemistry
Standard potentials Table 6M.1 557
Appendix 2B A16
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CHEMICAL S
E
V
PRINCIPLES E
N
T
H
THE QUEST FOR INSIGHT
E
D
I
T
I
PETER ATKINS O
Oxford University
N
LORETTA JONES
University of Northern Colorado
LEROY LAVERMAN
University of California, Santa Barbara
New York
Publisher: Kate Ahr Parker Library of Congress Control Number: 2015951706
Acquisitions Editor: Alicia Brady ISBN-13: 978-1-4641-8395-9
Developmental Editor: Heidi Bamatter ISBN-10: 1-4641-8395-3
Marketing Manager: Maureen Rachford
Marketing Assistant: Cate McCaffery © 2016, 2013, 2010, 2005 by P. W. Atkins, L. L. Jones,
and L. E. Laverman
Media Editor: Amy Thorne
All rights reserved
Media Producer: Jenny Chiu
Photo Editor: Robin Fadool
Printed in the United States of America
Photo Licensing Editor: Richard Fox
First printing
Senior Project Editor: Elizabeth Geller
Cover Designer: Blake Logan
International Edition Cover Design: Dirk Kaufman
Text Designer: Marsha Cohen
Art Manager: Matthew McAdams
Illustrations: Peter Atkins and Leroy Laverman
Production Manager: Susan Wein
Composition: Aptara
Printing and Binding: RR Donnelley
Cover Image: © Ted Kinsman/Alamy
W. H. Freeman and Company
One New York Plaza
Suite 4500
New York, NY 10004-1562
www.whfreeman.com
FUNDAMENTALS F1 C
O
Focus 1 ATOMS 1
N
Focus 2 MOLECULES 67 T
E
Focus 3 STATES OF MATTER 145
N
INTERLUDE Ceramics and Glasses 239
T
Focus 4 THERMODYNAMICS 241 S
INTERLUDE Free Energy and Life 346

I
N
Focus 5 EQUILIBRIUM 347
INTERLUDE Homeostasis 442
B
Focus 6 REACTIONS 443 R
INTERLUDE Practical Cells 584
I
E
Focus 7 KINETICS 587
F
Focus 8 THE MAIN-GROUP ELEMENTS 643
Focus 9 THE d-BLOCK ELEMENTS 705
Focus 10 NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY 747
Focus 11 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 777
INTERLUDE Technology: Fuels 829
MAJOR TECHNIQUES (Online Only)
http://macmillanhighered.com/chemicalprinciples7e
iii
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Preface xv F The Determination of C
Composition F46 O
F.1 Mass Percentage Composition / F46
F.2 Determining Empirical Formulas / F48 N
F.3 Determining Molecular Formulas / F49
FUNDAMENTALS / F1 T
FUNDAMENTALS F Exercises / F50
E
Introduction and Orientation F1 G Mixtures and Solutions F51
N
G.1 Classifying Mixtures / F51
A Matter and Energy F5
G.2 Separation Techniques / F53 T
A.1 Symbols and Units / F5
G.3 Concentration / F54 S
A.2 Accuracy and Precision / F8
G.4 Dilution / F56
A.3 Force / F9
TOOLBOX G.1 How to Calculate the
A.4 Energy / F10
Volume of Stock Solution Required for
FUNDAMENTALS A Exercises / F13 a Given Dilution / F57
B Elements and Atoms F15 FUNDAMENTALS G Exercises / F58
B.1 Atoms / F15
H Chemical Equations F60
B.2 The Nuclear Model / F16
H.1 Representing Chemical Reactions / F60
B.3 Isotopes / F18
H.2 Balanced Chemical Equations / F62
B.4 The Organization of the
FUNDAMENTALS H Exercises / F64
Elements / F19
FUNDAMENTALS B Exercises / F21 I Precipitation Reactions F66
I.1 Electrolytes / F66
C Compounds F22
I.2 Precipitates / F67
C.1 What Are Compounds? / F22
I.3 Ionic and Net Ionic Equations / F68
C.2 Molecules and Molecular
I.4 Putting Precipitation to Work / F69
Compounds / F23
C.3 Ions and Ionic Compounds / F24 FUNDAMENTALS I Exercises / F71
FUNDAMENTALS C Exercises / F28
J Acids and Bases F72
D Nomenclature F29 J.1 Acids and Bases in Aqueous
Solution / F73
D.1 Names of Cations / F29
J.2 Strong and Weak Acids and Bases / F74
D.2 Names of Anions / F29
J.3 Neutralization / F76
D.3 Names of Ionic Compounds / F31
TOOLBOX D.1 How to Name Ionic FUNDAMENTALS J Exercises / F77
Compounds / F31
K Redox Reactions F78
D.4 Names of Inorganic Molecular
K.1 Oxidation and Reduction / F78
Compounds / F32
K.2 Oxidation Numbers / F80
TOOLBOX D.2 How to Name
Simple Inorganic Molecular TOOLBOX K.1 How to Assign Oxidation
Compounds / F33 Numbers / F80
D.5 The Nomenclature of Some Common K.3 Oxidizing and Reducing Agents / F82
Organic Compounds / F35 K.4 Balancing Simple Redox
Equations / F84
FUNDAMENTALS D Exercises / F37
FUNDAMENTALS K Exercises / F85
E Moles and Molar Masses F38
E.1 The Mole / F38 L Reaction Stoichiometry F87
E.2 Molar Mass / F40 L.1 Mole-to-Mole Predictions / F87
FUNDAMENTALS E Exercises / F44 L.2 Mass-to-Mass Predictions / F88
v