Cannabis: The Genus Cannabis (Medicinal and Aromatic Plants - Industrial Profiles)

289 Pages·1998·2.24 MB·English

by  David T Brown

CANNABIS
Copyright © 1998 OPA (Overseas Publishers Association) N.V. Published by license under the Harwood Academic Publishers imprint,
part of The Gordon and Breach Publishing Group.
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants—Industrial Profiles
Individual volumes in this series provide both industry and academia with in-depth coverage
of one major medicinal or aromatic plant of industrial importance.
Edited by Dr Roland Hardman
Volume 1
Valerian
edited by Peter J.Houghton
Volume 2
Penilla
edited by He-Ci Yu, Kenichi Kosuna and Megumi Haga
Volume 3
Poppy
edited by Jeno Bernáth
Volume 4
Cannabis
edited by David T.Brown
Other volumes in preparation
Artemisia, edited by C.Wright
Capsicum, edited by P.Bosland and A.Levy
Cardamom, edited by P.N.Ravindran and K.J.Madusoodanan
Carum, edited by É.Németh
Chamomile, edited by R.Franke and H.Schilcher
Cinnamon and Cassia, edited by P.N.Ravindran and S.Ravindran
Claviceps, edited by V.Kren and L.Cvak
Colchicum, edited by V.Šimánek
Curcuma, edited by B.A.Nagasampagi and A.P.Purohit
Eucalyptus, edited by J.Coppen
Evening Primrose, edited by P.Lapinskas
Feverfew, edited by M.I.Berry
Ginkgo, edited by T. van Beek
Ginseng, by W.Court
Hypericum, edited by K.Berger Büter and B.Büter
Illicium and Pimpinella, edited by M.Miró Jodral
Licorice, by L.E.Craker, L.Kapoor and N.Mamedov
Melaleuca, edited by I.Southwell
Neem, by H.S.Puri
Ocimum, edited by R.Hiltunen and Y.Holt
Piper Nigrum, edited by P.N.Ravindran
Plantago, edited by C.Andary and S.Nishibe
Saffron, edited by M.Negbi
Salvia, edited by S.Kintzios
Stevia, edited by A.D.Kinghorn
Tilia, edited by K.P.Svoboda and J.Collins
Thymus, edited by W.Letchamo, E.Stahl-Biskup and F.Saez
Trigonella, edited by G.A.Petropoulos
Urtica, by G.Kavalali
This book is part of a series. The publisher will accept continuation orders which may be
cancelled at any time and which provide for automatic billing and shipping of each title in the
series upon publication. Please write for details.
Copyright © 1998 OPA (Overseas Publishers Association) N.V. Published by license under the Harwood Academic Publishers imprint,
part of The Gordon and Breach Publishing Group.
CANNABIS
The Genus Cannabis
Edited by
David T.Brown
School of Pharmacy, University of Portsmouth, UK
harwood academic publishers
Australia (cid:127) Canada (cid:127) China (cid:127) France (cid:127) Germany (cid:127) India (cid:127) Japan
Luxembourg (cid:127) Malaysia (cid:127) The Netherlands (cid:127) Russia (cid:127) Singapore
Switzerland (cid:127) Thailand
Copyright © 1998 OPA (Overseas Publishers Association) N.V. Published by license under the Harwood Academic Publishers imprint,
part of The Gordon and Breach Publishing Group.
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2003.
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Copyright © 1998 OPA (Overseas Publishers Association) N.V. Published by license
under the Harwood Academic Publishers imprint, part of The Gordon and Breach
Publishing Group.
All rights reserved.
No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Printed
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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Cannabis: the genus Cannabis.—(Medicinal and aromatic
plants: industrial profiles; v. 4)
1. Cannabis 2. Cannabis—Therapeutic use
I. Brown, David T.
615.7'827
ISBN 0-203-30422-5 Master e-book ISBN
ISBN 0-203-34413-8 (Adobe eReader Format)
ISBN 90-5702-291-5 (Print Edition)
ISSN 1027-4502
Copyright © 1998 OPA (Overseas Publishers Association) N.V. Published by license under the Harwood Academic Publishers imprint,
part of The Gordon and Breach Publishing Group.
CONTENTS
Preface to the Series vii
Preface ix
Contributors xi

1 Cannabis Use and Abuse by Man: An Historical Perspective 1
Simon Wills
2 The Cannabis Plant: Botany, Cultivation and Processing for Use 29
Amala Raman
3 The Chemistry of Cannabis 55
Amala Raman and Alpana Joshi
4 Analytical and Legislative Aspects of Cannabis 71
Geoffrey F.Phillips
5 Non-Medicinal Uses of Cannabis sativa 115
David T.Brown
6 Advances in Cannabinoid Receptor Pharmacology 125
Roger G.Pertwee
7 The Therapeutic Potential for Cannabis and its Derivatives 175
David T.Brown
8 Cannabis and Cannabinoids in Pain Relief 223
Mario A.P.Price and William G. Notcutt
9 Cannabis Addiction and Withdrawal: Attitudes and Implications 247
David E.Smith and Richard B.Seymour
10 Side Effects of Cannabis Use and Abuse 253
Simon Wills

v
Copyright © 1998 OPA (Overseas Publishers Association) N.V. Published by license under the Harwood Academic Publishers imprint,
part of The Gordon and Breach Publishing Group.

PREFACE TO THE SERIES
There is increasing interest in industry, academia and the health sciences in medicinal
and aromatic plants. In passing from plant production to the eventual product used
by the public, many sciences are involved. This series brings together information
which is currently scattered through an ever increasing number of journals. Each
volume gives an in-depth look at one plant genus, about which an area specialist has
assembled information ranging from the production of the plant to market trends
and quality control.
Many industries are involved such as forestry, agriculture, chemical, food, flavour,
beverage, pharmaceutical, cosmetic and fragrance. The plant raw materials are roots,
rhizomes, bulbs, leaves, stems, barks, wood, flowers, fruits and seeds. These yield
gums, resins, essential (volatile) oils, fixed oils, waxes, juices, extracts and spices for
medicinal and aromatic purposes. All these commodities are traded world-wide. A
dealer’s market report for an item may say “Drought in the country of origin has
forced up prices”.
Natural products do not mean safe products and account of this has to be taken
by the above industries, which are subject to regulation. For example, a number of
plants which are approved for use in medicine must not be used in cosmetic products.
The assessment of safe to use starts with the harvested plant material which has to
comply with an official monograph. This may require absence of, or prescribed limits
of, radioactive material, heavy metals, aflatoxin, pesticide residue, as well as the
required level of active principle. This analytical control is costly and tends to exclude
small batches of plant material. Large scale contracted mechanised cultivation with
designated seed or plantlets is now preferable.
Today, plant selection is not only for the yield of active principle, but for the
plant’s ability to overcome disease, climatic stress and the hazards caused by mankind.
Such methods as in vitro fertilisation, meristem cultures and somatic embryogenesis
are used. The transfer of sections of DNA is giving rise to controversy in the case of
some end-uses of the plant material.
Some suppliers of plant raw material are now able to certify that they are supplying
organically-farmed medicinal plants, herbs and spices. The Economic Union directive
(CVO/EU No 2092/91) details the specifications for the obligatory quality controls
to be carried out at all stages of production and processing of organic products.
Fascinating plant folklore and ethnopharmacology leads to medicinal potential.
Examples are the muscle relaxants based on the arrow poison, curare, from species
of Chondrodendron, and the antimalarials derived from species of Cinchona and
Artemisia. The methods of detection of pharmacological activity have become
increasingly reliable and specific, frequently involving enzymes in bioassays and
avoiding the use of laboratory animals. By using bioassay linked fractionation of
crude plant juices or extracts, compounds can be specifically targeted which, for
example, inhibit blood platelet aggregation, or have antitumour, or antiviral, or any
other required activity. With the assistance of robotic devices, all the members of a
genus may be readily screened. However, the plant material must be fully authenticated
by a specialist.
vii
Copyright © 1998 OPA (Overseas Publishers Association) N.V. Published by license under the Harwood Academic Publishers imprint,
part of The Gordon and Breach Publishing Group.
viii PREFACE TO THE SERIES
The medicinal traditions of ancient civilisations such as those of China and India
have a large armamentaria of plants in their pharmacopoeias which are used
throughout South East Asia. A similar situation exists in Africa and South America.
Thus, a very high percentage of the World’s population relies on medicinal and
aromatic plants for their medicine. Western medicine is also responding. Already in
Germany all medical practitioners have to pass an examination in phytotherapy before
being allowed to practise. It is noticeable that throughout Europe and the USA,
medical, pharmacy and health related schools are increasingly offering training in
phytotherapy.
Multinational pharmaceutical companies have become less enamoured of the single
compound magic bullet cure. The high costs of such ventures and the endless
competition from me too compounds from rival companies often discourage the
attempt. Independent phytomedicine companies have been very strong in Germany.
However, by the end of 1995, eleven (almost all) had been acquired by the
multinational pharmaceutical firms, acknowledging the lay public’s growing demand
for phytomedicines in the Western World.
The business of dietary supplements in the Western World has expanded from the
Health Store to the pharmacy. Alternative medicine includes plant based products.
Appropriate measures to ensure the quality, safety and efficacy of these either already
exist or are being answered by greater legislative control by such bodies as the Food
and Drug Administration of the USA and the recently created European Agency for
the Evaluation of Medicinal Products, based in London.
In the USA, the Dietary Supplement and Health Education Act of 1994 recognised
the class of phytotherapeutic agents derived from medicinal and aromatic plants.
Furthermore, under public pressure, the US Congress set up an Office of Alternative
Medicine and this office in 1994 assisted the filing of several Investigational New
Drug (IND) applications, required for clinical trials of some Chinese herbal
preparations. The significance of these applications was that each Chinese
preparation involved several plants and yet was handled as a single IND. A
demonstration of the contribution to efficacy, of each ingredient of each plant, was
not required. This was a major step forward towards more sensible regulations in
regard to phytomedicines.
My thanks are due to the staff of Harwood Academic Publishers who have made
this series possible and especially to the volume editors and their chapter contributors
for the authoritative information.
Roland Hardman
Copyright © 1998 OPA (Overseas Publishers Association) N.V. Published by license under the Harwood Academic Publishers imprint,
part of The Gordon and Breach Publishing Group.
PREFACE
Cannabis sativa is a dioecious, bushy plant, probably originating from central Asia,
but now considerably more widely disseminated and enjoying a truly international
reputation. Records indicate that cannabis was used by man some 2–3,000 years
before Christ. Then, as now, it provided a source of fuel, textiles, paper, rope, medicines
and intoxication.
The plant exudes a resin containing psychoactive compounds called cannabinoids.
Trichomes which secrete the resin are most abundant in the flowering heads and
surrounding leaves. There are over 60 cannabinoids, the most familiar of these being
delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). The amount of resin produced, and its
cannabinoid content are strongly influenced by plant gender, cultivation conditions
and time of harvest. In addition to naturally occurring cannabinoids, the search for
new ‘phytopharmaceuticals’ has led to the development of synthetic or semisynthetic
derivatives with enhanced medicinal properties and reduced side effects. This in turn
has led to a greater understanding of cannabinoid pharmacology and pharmacokinetics
in addition to providing several promising lead medicinal compounds.
Cannabis and its derivatives are used medicinally in a range of disorders; although
often illicitly so. Traditional uses such as the relief of pain, have been extended to
include the reduction of intra-occular pressure in glaucoma, relief of spasticity in
multiple sclerosis, treatment of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting, and
stimulation of appetite in AIDS patients. This book reviews evidence for the
justification of these uses. Cannabis also has its darker side; it is the most commonly
abused illicit substance on the planet. A body of evidence suggests that cannabis can
cause both physical and psychological harm, although the extent of this is the topic
of hot debate, extended in this volume.
There have been at least 23 international symposia on cannabis which are
referenced, together with over 700 other citations, in this book. In addition, a search
on the World Wide Web reveals a burgeoning number of correspondents wishing to
air their views on all aspects of cannabis use. This serves to illustrate the interest
which cannabis still generates.
Cannabis has had a long and chequered history spanning some 5,000 years, as the
source of substances of abuse, of medicines, and products useful in manufacturing
industry. Study of derivatives from the cannabis plant are still providing us with
surprises and possibilities which sustain our fascination with the plant. This book
provides a detailed review of the use and abuse of cannabis and the national and
international problems which surround them. It provides a body of evidence, in one
volume, from which the reader can obtain a clear view of where society stands in its
relationship with cannabis and the likely paths which that relationship may take in
the future.
David T.Brown
ix
Copyright © 1998 OPA (Overseas Publishers Association) N.V. Published by license under the Harwood Academic Publishers imprint,
part of The Gordon and Breach Publishing Group.