Can Farmers Diversify from Growing Tobacco in Zimbabwe?

70 Pages·2013·2.17 MB·English

Faculty of Natural Resources and
Agricultural Sciences
Can Farmers Diversify from Growing
Tobacco in Zimbabwe?

Caroline Claudia Mugadza Khumalo

Department of Urban and Rural Development
Master’s Thesis • 30 HEC
Rural Development and Natural Resource Management - Master’s Programme
Uppsala 2013
Can Farmers Diversify from Growing Tobacco in Zimbabwe?
Caroline Claudia Mugadza Khumalo
Supervisor: Linley Chiwona Karltun, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences,
Department of Urban and Rural Development, Devision of Rural Development
Examiner: Örjan Bartholdson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences,
Department of Urban and Rural Development,Devision of Rural Development
Credits: 30 HEC
Level: Second cycle, A2E
Course title: Master’s thesis in Rural Development and Natural Resource Management
Course code: EX0681
Programme/Education: Rural Development and Natural Resource Management – Master’s Programme
Place of publication: Uppsala
Year of publication: 2013
Cover picture: Tobacco Farmers in their field, Zimbabwe, Caroline Claudia Mugadza Khumalo
Maps and/or images: Caroline Claudia Mugadza Khumalo
Online publication: http://stud.epsilon.slu.se

Keywords: Diversification, Livelihoods, Rural Change, Tobacco, Zimbabwe
Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences
Faculty of Natural Resources and Agricultural Sciences
Department of Urban and Rural Development
Abstract

Firm action has been taken by international organisations such as the FAO and the World
Bank to curb the growth and consumption of tobacco. Subsequently, one of the world’s
poorest countries, Zimbabwe, is also one of the largest producers of tobacco. This thesis
examines how Zimbabwean farmers are diversifying from tobacco. The paper employs
qualitative methods to clarify the notion of livelihood diversification amongst farmers. The
fieldwork was carried out during the peak of the tobacco selling season in the north and north
eastern regions of Zimbabwe and semi-structured interviews, observations and transect walks
were carried out with tobacco farmers and a variety of professionals from the tobacco
industry.

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Acknowledgements

“And, when you want something, the entire universe conspires in helping you to achieve it.”
- Paulo Coelho, The Alchemist

Now it is time to look back at the last few years from the time I started my masters studies.
There are so many people to thank for their encouragement, love, inspiration and support.
My mother, this degree is dedicated to you. For your years of hard work and the sacrifices
you made to put us through school. My dear brothers, I will always be grateful to you for
some of my happiest moments in Sweden were when you called me during my most
impoverished times to tell me I could go to western union to collect the money you had sent
to me. I thank Christoffer for reading through my thesis over and over again. I would also
like to thank my supervisor for being a great mentor and for bringing out the best in me and
my work. Lastly, I thank my classmates and lecturers for being great and the Swedish
government for the tuition-free years we had.

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Contents

Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 3
Acknowledgements.................................................................................................................... 4
Contents ..................................................................................................................................... 5
Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................. 7
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 8
1.1. Global Tobacco Production ..................................................................................................... 9
1.2. The Tobacco Plant ............................................................................................................... 10
1.2.1. Tobacco Cultivation ........................................................................................................ 11
1.2.2. Tobacco Processing ........................................................................................................ 12
1.2.3. Tobacco Consumption .................................................................................................... 12
1.2.4. Tobacco and Public Health ............................................................................................ 13
2. Comparison with other Alkaloids ............................................................................................. 14
2.1. Khat ..................................................................................................................................... 14
2.2. Coca ..................................................................................................................................... 15
2.3. Comparison with Tobacco .................................................................................................. 16
3. History of Tobacco in Zimbabwe ............................................................................................. 16
3.1. Tobacco Production in Zimbabwe ...................................................................................... 18
3.2. Land Redistribution and the Effect on Tobacco Production .............................................. 18
3.3. Credit for Agricultural Enterprises ..................................................................................... 19
4. Problem Statement .................................................................................................................. 20
4.1. Research Objective ............................................................................................................. 20
5. Guiding Concepts and Theories .............................................................................................. 21
5.1. Diversification .................................................................................................................... 21
5.1.1. Diversification from Agrarian Livelihoods –A Comparison ............................................ 23
5.1.2. Multiple Livelihood Strategies ....................................................................................... 25
5.1.3. Gender and Diversification away from Tobacco ........................................................... 25
6. Methodology ........................................................................................................................... 27
6.1. Study Design ....................................................................................................................... 27
6.2. Study Area .......................................................................................................................... 28
6.2.1. Study Sites ..................................................................................................................... 28
6.2.2. Country Background ....................................................................................................... 29
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7. Data Collection ........................................................................................................................ 30
7.1. Validity of findings .............................................................................................................. 32
8. Results ..................................................................................................................................... 33
8.1. Classification of farmers ..................................................................................................... 33
8.1.1. Characteristics of participants ....................................................................................... 33
8.1.2. State of Tobacco Production in Zimbabwe in 2011 ....................................................... 35
8.2. Tobacco Growers ............................................................................................................... 37
8.2.1. Gender and Labour......................................................................................................... 37
8.2.2. To Grow or not to Grow Tobacco .................................................................................. 38
8.2.3. Growing Practices .......................................................................................................... 41
8.3. Regulation and Support Systems ....................................................................................... 42
8.4. Tobacco Buyers .................................................................................................................. 45
9. Discussion ................................................................................................................................ 50
9.1. Options for Diversification ................................................................................................. 52
9.2. Risks and Vulnerability ........................................................................................................ 53
9.3. Rural Change and Tobacco ................................................................................................. 56
10. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 58
References .............................................................................................................................. 62
Appendix ................................................................................................................................. 70

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Abbreviations

USAID United States Agency for International Development
FCTC Framework Convention on Tobacco Control
BATco British American Tobacco
NTRM Non Tobacco Related Material
WHO World Health Organisation
IMF International Monetary Fund
MTC Mashonaland Tobacco Company
TIMB Tobacco Industry and Marketing Board
ZTA Zimbabwe Tobacco Association
EMA Environmental Management Agency
ZESA Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority
TRB Tobacco Research Board
MDG Millennium Development Goal
GNI Gross National Income
CDC Centres for Disease Control and Prevention

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1 Introduction

Nearly 80% of the more than one billion smokers worldwide live in low and middle income1
countries, where the burden of tobacco-related illness and death is heaviest (WHO, 2012).
While smoking has been declining in high-income countries it has been steadily increasing in
middle income and low income countries. This is largely as a result of increased aggressive
regulations in western countries such as higher taxation on tobacco products; the prohibition
of smoking in public areas and restrictions on advertising and promotion activities (Jah &
Chaloupka, 1999, p46). Equally important there has been increased access to information and
warnings about the health effects of tobacco such as the graphic health warnings obligatory
on all cigarette packages in Australia (RTE News, 2012).

The production of tobacco has been termed by policy makers as an epidemic and the crop as
a killer plant (Panchamuki, 2000, p1). Undeniably, tobacco is a controversial plant but it is
also known to some as the golden leaf and to others as green gold (Sunco Tobacco, 2010; Orr
2000, p348). International effort has been taken, led by the World Health Organisation to try
curbing the growth and production of tobacco. However, this is not a simple task that can be
done in a short amount of time as many different factors must be addressed such as the
numerous livelihoods and economies that depend on the crop. Tobacco trading has proved to
be a lucrative business that will be challenging to stop. According to the Centres for Disease
Control and Prevention (2012) from 1998 to 2010 the USA alone collected $243.8 billion in
total revenues from the tobacco industry settlement payments and excise taxes. Moreover, in
2012 revenues from global tobacco sales are estimated to be approximately $500 billion and
multinational tobacco companies such as British American Tobacco and Philip Morris are
accused of targeting emerging economies, for instance Nigeria and Turkey, as they identify
profitable markets (Bowers, 2012).

Tobacco is undoubtedly a high risk crop when largely dependent on for income. This is due to
the hazardous effects that it poses to those who participate in its production and those who
consume it. For example, children and adults alike working with tobacco are at risk of

1 The World Bank (2012) divides economies according to 2011 Gross National Income per capita. A low-
income country is defined as having an annual GNI per capita equivalent to $1,025 or less. Lower middle
income, $1,026 - $4,035; upper middle income, $4,036 - $12,475; and high income, $12,476 or more. Most
high income economies have an industrial economy. GNI is the value (in U.S dollars) of a country’s final output
of goods and services in a year.
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attaining ‘green tobacco sicknesses’ due to the nicotine absorbed into their skin and may
suffer symptoms such as vomiting and dizziness (McBride et al, 1998). Children born to
smoking mothers are also at risk as they have lower birth weights and are more likely to die
from sudden infant death syndrome (Jah & Chaloupka, 1999, p1). The cultivation of tobacco
is also invariably associated with the depletion of forests as burning wood is needed for
curing the tobacco, which results in air pollution in the surrounding tobacco fields
(Panchamukhi, 2000, p6).The tragedy of tobacco is that as well as causing harm it is also a
livelihood means for millions of people all over the world. The majority of those involved in
its production, can be found in rural communities in the poorest developing countries such as
Malawi, Zimbabwe, Bangladesh and the Philippines (Warner, 2002, pg20).

1.1 Global Tobacco Production

TOBACCO LEAF ACTUAL PROJECTED
PRODUCTION ‘000 tonnes 2000 2010

World 6 137,7 7160,0
China 2 298,8 2 972,5
India 595,4 685,4

Brazil 520.7 584,7
USA 408.2 526.8
EU(15) 314.5 300.9

Zimbabwe 204.9 232.8
Turkey 193.9 268.8
Indonesia 166.6 119.6

USSR (former area) 116.8 70.6
Malawi 108.0 137,9
Table 1: Projections of Tobacco Production (Source: FAO 2004)

According to a World Bank study approximately 33milion people worldwide farm tobacco
either full or part-time and another 10 million workers provide materials and services for
the tobacco industry (Warner, 2002, p20). In table 1 we see the top ten tobacco producing
countries in the world and it is clear from the data that the majority of the producers are
developing countries (FAO 2004). Efforts are being made to get tobacco growers to diversify
to other crops and participate in other income generating activities that are more sustainable
for both the environment and their well-being. Although production has decreased in
developed countries such as America it has been a challenge to get growers in developing
countries to diversify away from growing this ‘killer crop’. This is not a unique situation as
similar instances can be viewed with other crops grown predominantly in developing
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countries such as khat grown in countries such as Ethiopia and Yemen; opium poppy in
Myanmar, Laos and Afghanistan; and coca, cultivated in Peru, Columbia and Bolivia. Issues
that should be taken into consideration are the vulnerability of rural small scale farmers who
have fewer assets and thus fewer options to fall back on unless adequate and efficient ways
are found to assist them.

This study examines the dominance of tobacco production in Zimbabwe, one of the countries
where policy-makers are actively trying to assist farmers to diversify to other crops. The
evidence so far shows little uptake and the key question is why are farmers so reluctant in
diversifying away from tobacco. Zimbabwe is a country grappling with many ills including
political disharmony, high prevalence of HIV and AIDS, high malnutrition rates and a
weakened civil society. This thesis explores concepts of livelihood diversification and
investigates systematically how flue-cured tobacco farmers in Zimbabwe are diversifying
away from growing tobacco. The study employs qualitative methods to clarify the notion of
livelihood diversification among tobacco farmers.

To begin with, a summary about the principle facts of the tobacco plant, its cultivation and its
influences on public health is presented. A comparison between tobacco and other alkaloids
that have also caused controversy follows. To portray the importance of tobacco in the
country a history of tobacco growing in Zimbabwe is presented. An outline of the research
aim and the questions to be addressed in the paper is made before presenting the guiding
concepts that were used for the study. The methodology section elaborates on the study
design, the study area and the country background. An overview is given of the validity of
the findings and the field work results are presented. In the discussion section, the results are
compared to several other studies.

1.2 The Tobacco Plant
Like potato, tomato, egg plant and pepper Nicotiana Tobaccum commonly known as tobacco,
belong to the family Solanaceae and is included in the genus Nicotiana with almost seventy
different species (Tobaks&Tandstick, museum 2012). Tobacco is thought to have originated
from the Peruvian Andes and to have spread through South America (ibid). Before tobacco
became a commercial crop, the native Americans used tobacco for traditional ceremonies,
rituals and for medicinal purposes (Harvest, 2001, p5). The British colony of Virginia is
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