Biomechanics Principles And Application

357 Pages·2007·5.9 MB·English

Artwork for the cover design was adapted from Littler, J.W. 1986. The finger extensor system. Some approaches to the
correction of its disabilities. Orthop. Clin. North Am. Jul;17(3):483-492.
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-8493-8534-6 (Hardcover)
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted
with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to
publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of
all materials or for the consequences of their use.
No part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or
other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any informa-
tion storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://
www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC) 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923,
978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For orga-
nizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Biomechanics / editors, Donald R. Peterson and Joseph D. Bronzino.
p. ; cm.
“A CRC title.”
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8493-8534-6 (alk. paper)
1. Biomechanics. I. Peterson, Donald R. II. Bronzino, Joseph D., 1937- III. Title.
[DNLM: 1. Biomechanics. 2. Cardiovascular Physiology. WE 103 B61453 2008]
QP303.B5682 2008
612’.01441--dc22 2007020173
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at
http://www.crcpress.com
Table of Contents
1
MechanicsofHardTissue
J.LawrenceKatz.....................................................................1-1
2
MusculoskeletalSoftTissueMechanics
RichardL.Lieber,ThomasJ.Burkholder.............................................2-1
3
Joint-ArticulatingSurfaceMotion
KentonR.Kaufman,Kai-NanAn....................................................3-1
4
JointLubrication
MichaelJ.Furey.....................................................................4-1
5
AnalysisofGait
RoyB.Davis,III,Sylvia O˜unpuu,PeterA.DeLuca..................................5-1
6
MechanicsofHead/Neck
AlbertI.King,DavidC.Viano.......................................................6-1
7
BiomechanicsofChestandAbdomenImpact
DavidC.Viano,AlbertI.King.......................................................7-1
8
CardiacBiomechanics
AndrewD.McCulloch...............................................................8-1
9
HeartValveDynamics
AjitP.Yoganathan,JackD.Lemmon,JeffreyT.Ellis..................................9-1
10
ArterialMacrocirculatoryHemodynamics
BaruchB.Lieber....................................................................10-1
11
MechanicsofBloodVessels
ThomasR.Canfield,PhilipB.Dobrin..............................................11-1
12
TheVenousSystem
ArtinA.Shoukas,CarlF.Rothe.....................................................12-1
v
13
Mechanics,MolecularTransport,andRegulationintheMicrocirculation
AleksanderS.Popel,RolandN.Pittman............................................13-1
14
MechanicsandDeformabilityofHematocytes
RichardE.Waugh,RobertM.Hochmuth...........................................14-1
15
MechanicsofTissue/LymphaticTransport
GeertW.Schmid-Scho¨nbein,AlanR.Hargens......................................15-1
16
ModelinginCellularBiomechanics
AlexanderA.Spector,RogerTran-Son-Tay..........................................16-1
17
CochlearMechanics
CharlesR.Steele,GaryJ.Baker,JasonA.Tolomeo,DeborahE.Zetes-Tolomeo......17-1
18
VestibularMechanics
WallaceGrant......................................................................18-1
19
ExercisePhysiology
ArthurT.Johnson,CathrynR.Dooly...............................................19-1
20
FactorsAffectingMechanicalWorkinHumans
BenF.Hurley,ArthurT.Johnson...................................................20-1
vi
Preface
Engineeringistheintegrationofartandscienceandinvolvestheuseofsystematicknowledgebasedonthe
principlesofmathematicsandthephysicalsciencestodesignanddevelopsystemsthathavedirectpractical
applicabilityforthebenefitofmankindandsociety.Withthisphilosophyinmind,theimportanceofthe
engineeringsciencesbecomesobvious,andthisisespeciallytrueforthebiomedicalaspects,wherethe
implicationsareeasilyidentifiable.Ofalltheengineeringsciences,biomedicalengineeringisconsidered
tobethebroadest.Itspracticefrequentlyinvolvesthedirectcombinationofthecoreengineeringsciences,
suchasmechanical,electrical,andchemicalengineering,andrequiresafunctionalknowledgeofother
nonengineeringdisciplines,suchasbiologyandmedicine,toachieveeffectivesolutions.Itisamultidis-
ciplinarysciencewithitsowncoreaspects,suchasbiomechanics,bioinstrumentation,andbiomaterials,
whichcanbefurthercharacterizedbyatriageofsubjectmatter.Forexample,thestudyofbiomechanics,
orbiologicalmechanics,employstheprinciplesofmechanics,whichisabranchofthephysicalsciences
thatinvestigatestheeffectsofenergyandforcesonmatterormaterialsystems.Itoftenembracesabroad
rangeofsubjectmatterthatmayincludeaspectsofclassicalmechanics,materialscience,fluidmechanics,
heattransfer,andthermodynamics,inanattempttomodelandpredictthemechanicalbehaviorsofany
livingsystem.Assuch,itmaybecalledthe“liberalarts”ofthebiomedicalengineeringsciences.
Biomechanicsisdeeplyrootedthroughoutscientifichistoryandhasbeeninfluencedbytheresearch
workofearlymathematicians,engineers,physicists,biologists,andphysicians.Notoneofthesedisciplines
canclaimsoleresponsibilityformaturingbiomechanicstoitscurrentstate;rather,ithasbeenaconglom-
erationandintegrationofthesedisciplines,involvingtheapplicationofmathematics,physicalprinciples,
andengineeringmethodologies,thathasbeenresponsibleforitsadvancement.Severalexaminationsexist
thatofferahistoricalperspectiveonbiomechanicsindedicatedchapterswithinavarietyofbiomechanics
textbooks.Forthisreason,ahistoricalperspectiveisnotpresentedwithinthisintroductionanditisleft
to the reader to discover the material within one of these textbooks. As an example, Y.C. Fung (1993)
providesareasonablydetailedsynopsisofthosewhowereinfluentialtotheprogressofbiomechanical
understanding.Areviewofthismaterialandsimilarmaterialfromotherauthorscommonlyshowsthat
biomechanicshasoccupiedthethoughtsofsomeofthemostconscientiousmindsinvolvedinavarietyof
thesciences.
LeonardodaVinci,oneoftheearlypioneersofbiomechanics,wasthefirsttointroducetheprincipleof
“causeandeffect”inscientifictermsashefirmlybelievedthat“thereisnoresultinnaturewithoutacause;
understandthecauseandyouwillhavenoneedoftheexperiment”(1478–1518).Leonardounderstood
thatexperimentationisanessentialtoolfordevelopinganunderstandingofnature’scausesandtheresults
they produce, especially when the cause is not immediately obvious. The contemporary approach to
understandandsolveproblemsinengineeringexpandsuponLeonardo’sprincipleandtypicallyfollowsa
sequenceoffundamentalstepsthatarecommonlydefinedasobservation,experimentation,theorization,
validation,andapplication.Thesestepsarethebasisoftheengineeringmethodologiesandtheirsignificance
isemphasizedwithinaformalengineeringeducation,especiallyinbiomedicalengineering.Eachstepis
consideredtobeequallyimportant,andaniterativerelationshipbetweensteps,withmathematicsserving
vii
asthecommonlink,isoftennecessaryinordertoconvergeonapracticalunderstandingofthesystemin
question.Anengineeringeducationthatignorestheseinterrelatedfundamentalswillproduceengineers
whoareignorantofthewaysinwhichreal-worldphenomenadifferfrommathematicalmodels.Sincemost
biomechanicalsystemsareinherentlycomplexandcannotbeadequatelydefinedusingonlytheoryand
mathematics,biomechanicsshouldbeconsideredadisciplinewhoseprogressreliesheavilyonresearch
andexperimentationandthecarefulimplementationofthesequenceofsteps.Whenaprecisesolution
is not obtainable, utilizing this approach will assist with identifying critical physical phenomena and
obtainingapproximatesolutionsthatmayprovideadeeperunderstandingaswellasimprovementstothe
investigativestrategy.Notsurprisingly,theneedtoidentifycriticalphenomenaandobtainapproximate
solutionsseemstobemoresignificantinbiomedicalengineeringthananyotherengineeringdiscipline,
whichcanbeattributedtothecomplexbiologicalprocessesinvolved.
Applicationsofbiomechanicshavetraditionallyfocusedonmodelingthesystem-levelaspectsofthe
human body, such as the musculoskeletal system, the respiratory system, and the cardiovascular and
cardiopulmonarysystems.Technologically,mostoftheprogresshasbeenmadeonsystem-leveldevice
developmentandimplementation,withobviousinfluencesonathleticperformance,workenvironment
interaction,clinicalrehabilitation,orthotics,prosthetics,andorthopaedicsurgery.However,morerecent
biomechanicsinitiativesarenowfocusingonthemechanicalbehaviorsofthebiologicalsubsystems,such
astissues,cells,andmolecules,inordertorelatesubsystemfunctionsacrossalllevelsbyshowinghow
mechanicalfunctioniscloselyassociatedwithcertaincellularandmolecularprocesses.Theseinitiatives
haveadirectimpactonthedevelopmentofbiologicalnano-andmicrotechnologiesinvolvingpolymer
dynamics,biomembranes,andmolecularmotors.Theintegrationofsystemandsubsystemmodelswill
advanceouroverallunderstandingofhumanfunctionandperformanceandfurtherdeveloptheprin-
ciples of biomechanics. Even still, our modern understanding about certain biomechanic processes is
limited,butthroughongoingbiomechanicsresearch,newinformationthatinfluencesthewaywethink
aboutbiomechanicsisgeneratedandimportantapplicationsthatareessentialtothebettermentofhuman
existencearediscovered.Asaresult,ourlimitationsarereducedandourunderstandingbecomesmore
refined.Recentadvancesinbiomechanicscanalsobeattributedtoadvancesinexperimentalmethodsand
instrumentation,suchascomputationalpowerandimagingcapabilities,whicharealsosubjecttoconstant
progress.
Therapidadvanceofbiomechanicsresearchcontinuestoyieldalargeamountofliteraturethatexistsin
theformofvariousresearchandtechnicalpapersandspecializedreportsandtextbooksthatareonlyacces-
sibleinvariousjournalpublicationsanduniversitylibraries.Withoutaccesstotheseresources,collecting
thepublicationsthatbestdescribethecurrentstateoftheartwouldbeextremelydifficult.Withthisin
mind,thistextbookoffersaconvenientcollectionofchaptersthatpresentcurrentprinciplesandappli-
cationsofbiomechanicsfromrespectedpublishedscientistswithdiversebackgroundsinbiomechanics
researchandapplication.Atotalof20chaptersispresented,12ofwhichhavebeensubstantiallyupdated
andrevisedtoensurethepresentationofmodernviewpointsanddevelopments.Thechapterswithinthis
texthavebeenorganizedinanattempttopresentthematerialinasystematicmanner.Thefirstgroup
of chapters is related to musculoskeletal mechanics and includes hard and soft tissue mechanics, joint
mechanics,andapplicationsrelatedtohumanfunction.Thenextgroupofchapterscoversseveralaspects
ofbiofluidmechanicsandincludesawiderangeofcirculatorydynamics,suchasbloodvesselandblood
cellmechanics,andtransport.Itisfollowedbyachapterthatintroducescurrentmethodsandstrategies
for modeling cellular mechanics. The next group consists of two chapters introducing the mechanical
functionsandsignificanceofthehumanear.Finally,theremainingtwochaptersintroduceperformance
characteristicsofthehumanbodysystemduringexerciseandexertion.Itistheoverallintentionofthis
texttoserveasareferencetotheskilledprofessionalaswellasanintroductiontothenoviceorstudent
ofbiomechanics.Anattemptwasmadetoincorporatematerialthatcoversabulkofthebiomechanics
field;however,asbiomechanicscontinuestogrow,sometopicsmaybeinadvertentlyomittedcausinga
viii
disproportionatepresentationofthematerial.Suggestionsandcommentsfromreadersarewelcomedon
subjectmatterthatshouldbeconsideredinfutureeditionsofthistextbook.
Throughtherationalizationofbiomechanics,Ifindmyselfappreciatingthecomplexityandbeautyof
alllivingsystems.Ihopethatthistextbookhelpsyourunderstandingofbiomechanicsandyourdiscovery
oflife.
DonaldR.Peterson,Ph.D.,M.S.
UniversityofConnecticutHealthCenter
Farmington,Connecticut
References
FungYC.1993.Biomechanics:MechanicalPropertiesofLivingTissues.2nded.NewYork,Springer–Verlag.
daVinciL.1478–1518.CodiceAtlantico,147v.a.
ix