Biological Warfare Against Crops

289 Pages·2002·4.98 MB·English

by  Simon M. Whitby

Biological Warfare
against Crops
Simon M. Whitby
Global Issues Series
General Editor: Jim Whitman
This exciting new series encompasses three principal themes: the interaction of
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Titles include:
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GOVERNING FOR THE ENVIRONMENT
Global Problems, Ethics and Democracy
Roger Jeffery and Bhaskar Vira (editors)
CONFLICT AND COOPERATION IN PARTICIPATORY NATURAL RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT
Ho-Won Jeong (editor)
GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES
Institutions and Procedures
W. Andy Knight
A CHANGING UNITED NATIONS
Multilateral Evolution and the Quest for Global Governance
W. Andy Knight (editor)
ADAPTING THE UNITED NATIONS TO A POSTMODERN ERA
Lessons Learned
Graham S. Pearson
THE UNSCOM SAGA
Chemical and Biological Weapons Non-Proliferation
Andrew T. Price-Smith (editor)
PLAGUES AND POLITICS
Infectious Disease and International Policy
Michael Pugh (editor)
REGENERATION OF WAR-TORN SOCIETIES
Bhaskar Vira and Roger Jeffery (editors)
ANALYTICAL ISSUES IN PARTICIPATORY NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
Simon M. Whitby
BIOLOGICAL WARFARE AGAINST CROPS
Global Issues Series
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Biological Warfare against
Crops
Simon M. Whitby
Research Fellow
Department of Peace Studies
University of Bradford
© Simon M.Whitby 2002
All rights reserved.No reproduction,copy or transmission of
this publication may be made without written permission.
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Copyright,Designs and Patents Act 1988.
First published 2002 by
PALGRAVE
Houndmills,Basingstoke,Hampshire RG21 6XS and
175 Fifth Avenue,New York,N.Y.10010
Companies and representatives throughout the world
PALGRAVEis the new global academic imprint of
St.Martin’s Press LLC Scholarly and Reference Division and
Palgrave Publishers Ltd (formerly Macmillan Press Ltd).
ISBN 0–333–92085–6
This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and
made from fully managed and sustained forest sources.
A catalogue record for this book is available
from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Whitby,Simon M.,1960–
Biological warfare against crops/Simon M.Whitby.
p.cm.—(Global issues)
Includes bibliographical references (p.).
ISBN 0–333–92085–6 (cloth)
1.Biological warfare.2.Plant diseases—Epidemics.
3.Agriculture—Defense measures.I.Title.II.Series.
UG447.8.W49 2001
358’.38—dc21
2001032130
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02
Printed and bound in Great Britain by
Antony Rowe Ltd,Chippenham,Wiltshire
Contents
List of Figures viii
List of Tables ix
Preface xi
Acknowledgements xiii
List of Abbrevations xiv
Glossary xv
1 Introduction 1
Background 3
Sources and approach 4
Chapters 6
2 Iraq and UNSCOM 10
Resolution 707 11
Resolution 715 12
UNSCOM 13
Nuclear and ballistic missiles programmes 14
Chemical warfare (CW) agents 14
Testing and weaponisation of CW agents 15
BW agents 16
Testing and weaponisation of BW agents 17
Deployment 18
Plant disease epidemics as BW – the case of Iraq 19
3 The Study of Disease in Plants 22
Early plant disease epidemics 22
Definitions and classification of plant disease 23
Disease in plants 25
Fungi 25
Bacteria 28
Viruses 30
Nematodes 31
Insects 33
Economic crops of international importance 34
Crop disease in global perspective 38
Losses to world crop production 38
Crop production in developed and developing countries 39
v
vi Contents
4 Anti-Crop BW and the BTWC 43
Development of the legal prohibition against BW 43
The BTWC 45
The Ad Hoc Group process 48
Plant pathogens and the BTWC 50
Plant pathogens important for the BTWC 51
Some additional agents under consideration during 60
the Ad Hoc Group process
Cuban allegations 64
5 The Context of US BW Research and Development 66
Domestic developments 66
OSRD/NDRC and BW 69
Special Projects Division 74
Anti-Crop BW in the US 76
6 Aspects of Anti-Crop BW Activity in France, Germany 77
and Japan
France 78
Germany 80
Japan 88
Perceptions of threat and the accuracy of intelligence 92
7 Post-Second World War US Anti-Crop BW 94
Research and planning years after the Second World 96
War, 1946–49
The Haskins Committee 99
Expansion of the BW programme during the Korean 103
War, 1950–53
The Stevenson Committee 103
Air force participation in the BW prograrnme 110
Cold War years – reorganisation of weapons and defence 114
programmes, 1954–58
Limited war period – expanding research, development, 116
testing and operational readiness, 1959–62
Adaptation of the BW programme to counter 116
insurgencies – Vietnam War years, 1963–68
Disarmament and phase down, l969–73 117
8 Some Aspects of UK and US Anti-Crop Warfare 118
Collaboration between 1943 and 1958
Historical underpinnings of transatlantic anti-crop 119
warfare collaboration
Contents vii
Aspects of UK anti-crop warfare activity in the post-war 127
period
A UK cereal rust epidemic – an unusual and suspicious 133
outbreak?
Aspects of US anti-crop warfare activity in the post-war 134
period
Defoliants and dessicants 137
Plant pathogens 137
9 Munitions for Anti-Crop BW Agents 151
The 20-mm anti-crop BW projectile 152
The 115 (M73R1) anti-crop BW bomb 152
The E77 anti-crop warfare munition 157
The E86 anti-crop BW bomb 167
10 Targets 169
Former Soviet Union and Its European satellites 169
The importance of rice and the possible impact of 172
anti-rice warfare against China
Possible anti-rice agents 185
Possible targets in China 191
Conclusions 199
11 Conclusions 202
12 Related International Regulation and Control of 209
Disease against Plants
The BTWC and the use of plant pathogens for peaceful 209
purposes
The Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) and the Biosafety 211
Protocol
The IPPC and further surveillance and disease reporting 214
mechanisms
Conclusion 215
Appendix I Wartime Studies into Potential Anti-Crop BW Agents 217
Appendix II 223
Appendix III Fort Detrick pertinent technical data on anti-crop
biological agents for FY 1970 224
Notes 226
Bibliography 253
Index 264
List of Figures
8.1 Viability of processed spores stored on bulk carriers
over a period of six months 141
9.1 Typical balloon flight profile between Japan and
North America 161
9.2 A typical jet stream between Japan and North America
during the winter months 162
viii
List of Tables
1.1 Key steps in the acquisition of a militarily significant
BW capability 3
3.1 Necrotic symptoms of fungal disease in plants 27
3.2 Hypertrophy and Hyperplasia Symptoms Caused by
Fungal Disease in Plants 28
3.3 Important pathogens affecting wheat 34
3.4 Important pathogens affecting rice 35
3.5 Important pathogens affecting maize 35
3.6 Important pathogens affecting potatoes 36
3.7 Important pathogens affecting bananas 36
3.8 Important pathogens affecting citrus fruits 36
3.9 Important pathogens affecting sugar 37
3.10 Important pathogens affecting coffee 37
3.11 Crop losses to disease in developed countries 39
3.12 Crop losses to disease in developing countries 40
3.13 Comparison of ratio lost in developing countries
compared to developed 40
4.1 The 1972 BTWC 47
4.2 Plant pathogens important to the BTWC 53
6.1 BW research during the third phase of the (French)
prophylactic commission, 1935–40 81
6.2 Plant infections and plant parasites considered by
Germany 84
7.1 Phases of US offensive BW programme 95
7.2 Projects in technical developments area in the US,
March 1954 115
8.1 Approximation of rice fields in Japan’s main islands 124
8.2 The effect of KF and LNA on different crops 136
8.3 Viability of spores of oat stem rust, race 8, after
storage under different atmospheres 140
8.4 Amounts of spores per gram of suspension in
different solvents 143
8.5 Viability of spores tested in 1951 145
9.1 The results of six drop-tests made to determine the
areas of distribution at different altitudes 155
9.2 Japanese balloon bombs launched between 1944 and 1945 163
ix