Australian Journal of Emergency Management

72 Pages·2006·3.94 MB·English

..Emergency Management
T
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produced by Emergency Management Australia Vol 16 No 3 Spring 2001
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The
Australian
In this issue .. .
J-ou rnal of
Emergen'cy.4
Management
Volunteering in Emergency Services:
the South Australian perspective
by Adaire Summers
Missed opportunities: NGOs and the United Nations I meA ustralian Journal of Emergency Manage-
ment is oubllshed bv the Australian Emereencv
International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction ,
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As the proud patron for this year's In their contribution to society and in uncomfortable, trying and sometimes
International Year of Volunteers, I have their support of others, I sense that many dangerous conditions. In many ways that
been honoured to meet, work, talk and volunteers are able to feel a deep inner is the cutting edge of volunteering.
plan with many volunteers who have peace, a feeling which comes to all of us The National Summit focused on legiti-
inspired me. It is something that I know a when we give ourselves to others. mate areas of concern to volunteers in
bit about, having been involved, for more But that does not mean that volunteers leadership and management positions
than 40 years, with the whole voluntary don't need recognition, back-up, encou- throughout emergency services in Austra-
cause. ragement and support, and indeed good lia. It's a credit to the organisers of the
I rejoice that this year is an opportunity management. National Summit to have placed the key
to promote the great significance to our And that brings me to the theme of the issues of recognition, funding, training
nation and to the world of voluntary National Summit for Emergency Manage- and legal liability squarely on the agenda.
service. mentIServices Volunteers 'Value your The Australian community as a whole
It is based on a tradition of mutual volunteers, or lose them'. wishes all volunteers well in considering
support, of mateship and practical help It's hard to imagine that people who these important issues and thanks
that goes back over 200 years of our have played such a significant role in volunteers for their continued work on
history in this harsh, unyielding and Australia's history as emergency service its behalt
sometimes dangerous land. It was an volunteers could ever be undervalued. I
obvious thing for the young men in 1914 don't believe volunteers are or have been. (This message is based on the opening
to be volunteers. They were simply doing But there's always an opportunity for a speech for the National Summit for
what their forebears had always done in timely reminder. Emergency ManagementlServices Volun-
time of need and crisis to come forward When the nation needs volunteers, they teers, 11 October 2001.)
and offer themselves. That's what you are there-on land, sea or air; in times of
have done as volunteers. fire, flood, cyclone or civil calamity. And
Today there are many people in our that's always been the way over the past
society who may feel powerless to address 100 years of our nationhood. But while
the social problems around them. Many the wider community salutes the efforts
worry about the future but then see its of volunteers in high profile emergency
protection as being someone else's situations, I know that volunteer contri-
responsibility. butions behind the scenes continue day-
Volunteers are different. Volunteers by-day, month-by-month and year-by-
form the fabric of a civil society. They are year.
its lifeblood. It is not only important what It should be said that not everyone is
you do-of profound significance though cut out to be an emergency volunteer.
that is-it is also important who you are, Many volunteers are required to take Peter Hollingworth
and what you stand for, and what you considerable risks. They are called out at Governor-General ofthe
contribute to the building of a nation. short notice. They are expected to work Commonwealth of Australia
Volunteering in Emergency Services:
the South Australian perspective
A
ustralia would become change, and we can be pro-active in
dysfunctional if it were not for its directing the changes in ways we desire.
by Adaire Summers BSSc, Grad Dip Ed,
volunteers. Volunteers come from The time between now and the changed
Volunteer Management consultant,
all walks of life and provide their services situation is the "Transition State", and it
Emergency Services Administrative Unit,
in many different arenas. From emergency is this state we must learn to manage. We
services to the arts, from localised service South Australia must learn transition management skills
delivery to strategic roles such as mem- and strategies.' (Schindler-Rainman
bership of boards and committees, the 1984).
input of Australia's volunteers has tradi- A look at the changing trends in The formation of the Emergency
tionally and continues to be the backbone volunteering may provide part of the Services Administrative Unit (ESAU) is
of this country.The nature of volunteering answer. There is a perception that there an indication of the times of change we
itself is changing, with the increasing are less older people volunteering. 'There live in.'lt will be necessary to develop new
formalisation of the volunteer sector. is some anecdotal evidence that ageing and creative ways to involve and integrate
Some 15 years ago Eva Schindler- Baby Boomers are selfish and not wanting new populations, and to become familiar
Rainman (1984) wrote that volunteering to volunteer' (Volunteering Vision 2001 and comfortable with organisations
was moving from the'no longer to the not July 2000). Older Australians are also different from our own so that collabo-
yet'. In real terms, the effect of this on the healthier and are staying in the workforce ration becomes easy and natural. We need
industry of volunteerism means 'Change, longer, leaving less time to devote to to be clear about and proud of our
Challenge, Creativity, Choice and Collabo- volunteering than they historically have. strengths, skills, and knowledge, and know
ration' (Schindler-Rainman 1984). Younger people are volunteering, however, how to communicate these.' (Schindler-
The face of Australian volunteers, in for short periods and sometimes in a Rainman 1984).
these rapidly changing times, is also variety of different sectors. Government ESAU was formed to provide adminis-
changing, as is the structure and settings initiatives such as mutual obligation and trative functions for three emergency
in which people volunteer. With changing increasing emphasis on community service agencies in South Australia, the
demographics such as urbanisation, the service through educational institutions Country Fire Service (CFS), the State
ageing population, zero population and the workplace are seen to have Emergency Service (SES) and the South
growth and more women entering the contributed to this. Often younger people Australian Metropolitan Fire Service
workforce comes a plethora of issues for volunteer to gain job skills and for social (SAMFS). For the purposes of this article,
the volunteer industry. One group of reasons, particularly in urban areas. the focus is on the CFS and SES as local
volunteers particularly feeling the sharp There have been limited studies under- service delivery is via volunteers.
edge of these changes is the emergency taken that indicate there is a difference Schindler-Rainman (1984) also points out
service volunteers. between urban and rural volunteers. It the necessity of doing things in different,
Emergency Services in South Australia, appears that urban volunteers are enticed new and creative ways. 'To develop new
with particular reference in this instance to volunteering more by the prospect of and different funding patterns and sources;
to the Country Fire Service (CFS) and the job skills and social contact and to a to barter for services, space, equipment
State Emergency Service (SES) rely slightly lesser degree to provide service usage; to find all the ways in which
entirely on its self-managed, volunteer to their communities. Rural volunteers volunteers and professionals can extend
teams to provide a professional, reliable tend to be motivated foremost to serve and humanise our services; to learn to
and efficient response to a range of and protect their own lives and properties understand and utilise new technologies;
emergencies at the local level. It is difficult and that of their communities, with social to become more accountable and cost
to gain an accurate picture of the total contact and job skills being a low priority effective; to evaluate our services, to
voluntary contributions of Australians as for these volunteers (Gare 2000). scrutinise our goal and mission statements
many organisations that utilise volunteers Change has been one of the greatest and, if necessary, to reprioritise and re-
are still developing mechanisms to issues affecting emergency service order them or develop new ones; to utilise
measure their exact numbers and the volunteers over the past few years, in the corporate responsibility emphasis and
hours worked. Conservative estimates are particular, the last two years in South commitment more than we have in the
that around 2.6 million volunteers contri- Australia. Indeed, Schindler-Rainman past'.
bute a total of 433.9 million hours a year (1984) was almost crystal-ball gazingwhen Demand for volunteer leaders to adopt
(Australian Bureau of Statistics 1995). all those years ago she pointed out that, modern management practices is increa-
Good news, but how does this relate to 'nationally and internationally, the Volun- sing. This is effectively widening the gap
emergency services, and why, then, is it teer World is in transition. It is moving between the 'haves' and the 'have nots', in
becoming increasingly difficult for from the past to the present, and from terms of the experience, knowledge and
emergency services to recruit and retain the present to the future. If we manage, skills of volunteers in emergency services,
volunteers and, more importantly, what indeed strategise, these transitions ESAU, through the Volunteer Management
can be done about it? carefully we can impact the direction of Branch (VMB) provides support services
Australian Journal of Emergency Management
'
to assist in closing the gap. Higher levels campaigns, recognition and retention also. The new volunteer will expect their
of accountability and responsibility both programs. Leadership and management team to be professional and have integrity,
on and off the incident battlefield go hand have a strong focus with training provided their leader to understand them, what
1
in hand with these demands, creating to volunteers for both. Support for makes them tick and to give them
pressures emergency service volunteers administration functions is also provided assignments or duties that both com-
are grappling with on a daily basis. by the VSO. pliment and challenge their skills, expe-
There exists a wide range of skills, Brokerage services are utilised for rience and interests.
experience and knowledge within the issues such as mediation and conflict This does not even begin to take into
emergency service organisations, with a resolution, whereby the VSO facilitates account the complex operational func-
great lean towards the hands on, opera- external assistance in the resolution of tions, roles and responsibilities that make
tionalsideofthe business. Thisleavesgaps issues at a local level. VSOS also provide up the core business of the volunteer
in non-operational aspects of running an advocacy services when required. For teams. Wow! A big ask for people who are
I~
organisation. As a higher level of accoun- example, this can take the form of volunteers and volunteer managers- the
tability and responsibility are required, negotiating with employers, terms and majority of whom do the job in the first
support services such as those provided conditions of release of volunteers for place to protect their communities,
by the VMB are becoming essential to attendance at incidents. people who have their own jobs, families
ensure the long-term healthy functioning It is becoming increasingly difficult to and would like a bit of leisure time
of a brigade or unit. A survey carried out recruit and retain volunteers in any occasionally.
in the UK in 1998 by the Institute for industry, as previously mentioned. Com- Sometimes, support, education, advice
Volunteering Research indicates that petition between organisations for people and encouragement does not go astray.
more voluntary organisations are moving with the necessary skills and interests is The level of support provided by the
towards formal structures in volunteer fierce with prospective volunteers expec- VSOS varies according to the needs and
management. Conclusions from the ting increasing professionalism when requests of the brigade or unit. The VSO
survey support the localised support they enter voluntary organisations. These might just provide information on OH&S
service delivery of the VMB as, 'volunteer expectations cover a range of areas, such issues or provide linkages to trained
management appears to be becoming as up to date management practices, OH&S staff. There might be a need for
increasingly formalised.. .' exceptional leadership of local volunteers management training in a range of areas
Our model of service delivery is quite and top quality, recognised training. such as, succession planning, adminis-
unique. Developments in the volunteer This begins with impressive recruiting tration, teamwork, conflict resolution,
industry over the past decade move campaigns and continues with appro- how to run effective meetings, delegating,
towards a more professional view of priate selection processes, job des- team communication or dealing with
volunteer management and involvement. criptions, induction and orientation, on difficult people. The VSO is trained and
Accountability, responsibility and struc- the job and specialised training that equipped to deliver these on a local level,
ture are becoming more the norm in includes state of the art technology and usually at the local brigade or unit and
recent years in contrast to the past, more up to date equipment (and they deserve usually on a night volunteers already get
informal nature of volunteering. Emer- no less!). The prospective volunteer will together to train.
gency service volunteers are responsible also expect, and be entitled to, open lines There is a strong demand for VSO's to
for organising, managing and running of communication and information assist in the planning and execution of a
their own organisations, both opera- about the systems and processes that are recruitment drive, the induction process,
tionally and non-operationally. Physical utilised both internally and within the setting up or refining administrative
resources and funding are provided wider organisation. Information about systems, planning awards programs,
through the State with CFS and SES OH&S policies and procedures, what their maintaining up to date membership files,
volunteers responsible and accountable insurance entitlements are, reimburse- or just someone to point the direction
for both. ment for out of pocket expenses, in fact through the bureaucratic maze so volun-
The provision of support and structure any policy or procedure that protects the teers can get what they need to do their
to volunteers through formal mechanisms volunteer and enhances their volun- job.
appears to be a global trend in a variety of teering contribution. These localised support services are
volunteering streams, such as community Volunteers will also expect to observe a complemented by several statewide
service, the arts, health, education, sport transparent and consultative decision initiatives of the VMB. Once such initia-
and recreation, environment and emer- making process and have recognised tive is the provision of scholarships for
gency services. In South Australia, num- input into that process. There will be an the Diploma of Community Services
bers of volunteers in emergency services explicitly stated vision and mission of (Volunteer Management). Volunteers are
(CFS and SES) exceed 20,000. Volunteer both the larger organisation and the encouraged to undertake the Diploma,
management support services are loca- brigade or unit the volunteer joins. They which has been developed through a
lised through regionally based Volunteer will expect to work as a team to set the partnership between Volunteering SA and
Support Officers (VSOS) who work with direction and goals for the brigade or unit Onkaparinga TAFE. VMB provides spon-
individual brigades and units on a local and will be prepared to undertake the sorship for volunteers to attend con-
level as the need dictates with a centrally tasks necessary to do their part in ferences that have a focus on volunteering,
based coordinated approach to policy reaching the goals. with two volunteers recently returning
and planning. They will work with people who are from the 161h World Volunteer Conference
VSOS provide consultancy services exceptional communicators, who know in Amsterdam. Many more volunteers
around recruitment, retention and recog- their jobs and their people well, who take have attended local conferences hosted
nition of volunteers along with resources responsibility for their actions and expect by Volunteering Australia and Volun-
and tools to assist with recruitment others to take responsibility for theirs teering SA. A program of sponsorship to
I Spring ZOO1
SAAVA (South Australian Association for volunteering in emergency services, References
Volunteer Administration) is also pro- demystify the services for them and Australian Bureau of Statistics 1995,
vided by VMB. encourage continuation of their involve- Voluntary Work Australia, AGPS, Canberra
Recruiting resources are also available ment as adults. Gare B. 2000, The Motivations of Emer-
on a statewide basis as well as locally and In conclusion, it appears that with the gency Service Volunteers, Research Paper.
include a freecall 1300 telephone number, increasing demands on volunteers to lead Institute for Volunteering Research,
opportunity for advertisement placement and manage their teams in a professional United Kingdom. 1998, www.ivr.org.ukl
on the 'govolunteer' website, telemar- manner amidst a rapidly changing envir- issues.htm
keting and recruiting brochures and onment, support services such as those Saunders P. 2000, Volunteering Vision
posters. provided by the VMB are now, and will 2010 Volunteering SA, Adelaide South
Harnessing the interest of youth in continue to be, essential to volunteers. Australia, www.volunteeringsa.org.au
volunteering in emergency services has This is a new approach to many volun- Schindler-Rainman E. 1984, The Journal
also been an increased focus in recent teers in CFS and SES and can be con- of Volunteer Administration. Spring,Volume
times. The appointment of a Youth sidered part of the long-term change 11, No. 3 pp. 45-49 on www.energizeinc.com
Programs Officer (YPO) to the VMB serves process.
Authors Contact details
to develop Cadet programs, train Cadet The change process often takes many
Adaire Summers,
Coordinators, develop, implement and years as the culture of the services
Volunteer Management Consultant,
monitor policies and procedures that will grapples with new ideas and different
Volunteer Management Branch,
enhance young peoples involvement in ways of achieving objectives.
Emergency Services Administrative Unit,
emergency services and provide pathways Support services such as Volunteer
60 Waymouth Street, Adelaide 5000
to volunteering as an adult. The intent of Management, OH&S and Risk Manage-
BOX 2706 GPO Adelaide SA 5001
Cadet programs is to provide safe, ment will develop and grow in line with
phone: [phone]
structured and enjoyable experiences for changing needs and demands and will
email: [email protected]
young people as they move through their continue to compliment existing services
cadetship. This in turn will encourage more that enhance the operational side of the
young people to value the experience of volunteer opportunities. This article has been refereed
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Missed opportunities:
NGOs and the United Nations International Decade
for Natural Disaster Reduction
Introduction they work at the grass roots, with
The 1980s put natural disaster mitigation communities and local organisations
by John Twig and Diane Steiner,
and preparedness onto the international as partners, and take a participatory
Benfield Greig Hazard Research Centre,
aid agenda. A succession of severe approach to development planning;
University College London, London
disasters-from the 1982-4 famines in this ensures that they respond to the
the Sahel, the Horn of Africa and Southern priorities of local people and build on
Africa to Hurricanes Gilbert and Hugo in local capacities
the Caribbean in 1988-9-were strong their sense of responsibility to their
reminders of the power of natural sation for Economic Cooperation and partners encourages them to make
hazards. Development (OECD) countries, spending long-term commitments to those they
The relationship between human almost $3 billion a year and working with help
actions and the effects of disasters-the or alongside 10,000-20,000 developing- their operational flexibility, relatively
socio-economic dimension of vulnera- country NGOs who, in turn, assisted up to free from bureaucratic structures and
bility-was increasingly well docu- 100 million people (Edwards and Hulme systems, enables them to respond and
mented and argued (Cuny 1983; Wijkman 1992,p.13). adapt quickly and easily
and Timberlake 1984; Maskrey 1989; In 1995 development NGOs were rec- NGO operations are relatively cheap
Anderson and Woodrow 198911998). koned to be spending $7-10 billion a year, and cost-effective, with low overheads
International concern about these compared to $55 billion in official NGOs are constantly questioning the
questions led to the creation of the development assistance from OECD effectiveness of their approach, iden-
United Nations (UN) International governments (Smillie 1995, p. 14). The tifying emerging issues and attempting
Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction proportion of official aid channelled to new methods, which places them at the
(IDNDR) which ran from 1990 to 1999 and through NGOs increased from 0.7% cutting edge of development thinking
(UN General Assemblv 1987). The Inter- of OECD aid in 1975 to 3.6% in 1985, and and practice
national Framework of Action launching at least 5% in 199314. With donors and the their culture (at policy and operational
the IDNDR, approved by the UN General UN now relying heavily on NGOs as level) is collaborative, not competitive;
Assembly in December 1989, set the implementing partners in humanitarian they are keen to share lessons where
international community the objective of operations, NGO capacity has also he this will help others
reducing the impact of disasters through come crucial to the functioning of the they attempt to give disempowered or
'concerted international action', with the international relief system (Borton and marginalised people a voice in policy
-t win goals of: Macrae 1997, p. 45; Hendrickson 1998, p. discussions with the rich and powerful;
improving each country's capacity for 16). their day-to-day work with the people
dealing with the problem The NGO sector's increasing popularity of the South enables them to make links
devising appropriate guidelines and with governments and official aid agen- between the'micro' and 'macro'environ-
strategies for applying scientific and cies is partly a response to recent shifts in ments
technical knowledge. development thinking-the so-called Similar arguments are used in assessing
It called on governments to take a series 'New Policy Agenda' based on neo-liberal the value of NGOs' contribution to relief
of actions, of which the principal ones economics and liberal democratic theory ooerations.
were to: that endorses the retreat of the state Brian iieldner. former lntcrn3tional
- formulate national mitigation programs (Edwards and Hulme 1996,pp. 4-5; Wallace Ihrcctor of the Lutheran \ilorlJ Federation's
take part in the concerted international et al 1997, pp. 13-25). humanitarian aid program, identifies four
action But the sector's rapid growth worldwide
establish national committees in recent decades is also due very largely
encourage support from the public and to the widespread perception-among aid Notes
- private sectors and development professionals, aca- 1. Debates about NGO definition and typology have
been lenahv and larceiv inmnclusive. We have used a
increase public awareness of risk and demics, donor agencies, governments and
set ol key diarafler~siiasa rue 01 thumb lo aetermme
the value of preventative measures (UN the public-that NGOs are particularly
nnat const.tt.les an NGO, base0 on the NCDO thane!
General Assembly 1989). effective in running development pro- drawn UD the Liaison Committee of Deveiooment NGOs
grams. lo the Lropean Lnlon (ha son Comml:lee 19971 an0
NGOs in development and disasters A variety of features are normally cited moo lkd lo encompdss hGOs n Oeveiopmg 1o.ntrler
an0 lnose muolueo n tellel Tnese charaaertsl rs Inc ude
NGO1 activities form a significant part of to justify this perception, which can be
a belief in soclai justice and serving the interests of
development and relief work in devel- s- ummed up as follows: communities, a base in civil society, non-prolit-making
oping countries. In 1993 there were an NGOs choose to work with and on aims, legal identity and accountability to donors and
beneficiaries. This approach conforms to everyday
estimated 4,000 non-governmental devel- behalf of those most in need: the
usage in relief and development circles. I1 excludes
opment organisations based in Organi- poorest and most vulnerable universities and other academic or research institutions..
I
Spring 2001
main characteristics of NGOs' contri- to support CBOs (for example, they are 1990, with the added impetus of the
bution here: already assisting CBOs with small grants, IDNDR, one might expect disaster miti-
they adopt a 'people-to-people ap- providing technical advice and exchan- gation to have been placed firmly on the
proach' ging information between CBOs facing NGO agenda.
they are flexible operationally similar hazards). Evidence in the literature for NGO
their inputs are pragmatic and task- NGOs are also 'often well placed to test, commitment to DMP in the 1990s iselusive
oriented develop and disseminate innovations and contradictory. There are positive and
they can respond promptly (Neldner which may substantially reduce vul- negative examples of the extent and
1996,pp. 27-29). nerability at the community or household quality of NGO involvement (Twigg et al.
A report to the Government of Nepal in level: The document suggests that donors 2000, pp. 3-4, 21-23). Research on this
1990 argued that the NGO sector should be could support such NGO work and subject that we have recently completed
mobilised to deliver relief because 'most encourage NGOs to become involved; it in five countries indicates considerable
NGOs operate at the grass-roots, and are also recommends that NGOs be encou- variations in the type ofwork undertaken,
better equipped in terms of superior raged to take part more in official approaches adopted and their effec-
training and organisation to impart committees and task forces (OECD-DAC tiveness in reducing risk, the extent to
immediate relief' (King Mahendra Trust1 1994,~1.9 )2. which DMP is systematised within NGO
Interdisciplinary Analysts 1990, pp. 69-70). NGO involvement in DMP is difficult operational systems and structures, and
A number of commentators have en- to chart, even though 'The relationship the degree to which it is integrated with
couraged or endorsed NGO involvement other development and relief work by
in natural disaster mitigation and pre- NGOs and other actors.
paredness (DMP) for similar reasons. NGO DMP activity appears generally to
For example, APRODEV, a network of the be on the increase but it still tends to be
'Because NGOs have
major European NGOs associated with the unsystematic and the ideal of main-
Protestant churches, maintains that there direct links with streaming mitigation in sustainable
is a wealth of experience among devel- development programming remains
the grass roots in
oping-country NGOs in dealing with distant in many cases, especially for rapid-
natural disasters and summarises NGOs' developing countries, onset hazards (Twiggetal. 2000; Luna 2000;
comparative advantages as follows: Matin and Taher 2000; Rocha and Chris-
they can easily
Because NGOs have direct links toplos 2000; Shumba 2000a).
with the grass roots in developing identify potential
countries, they can easily identify NGOs and the UN system
threats and
potential threats and vulnerabilities, NGOs have played a role in UN develop-
as well as mobilise people's capacities. vulnerabilities, as well ment and humanitarian affairs for
NGOs are therefore particularly well decades. In the 1990s, though, they became
as mobilise people's
placed to support local initiatives much more involved and their influence
(often with very small costs) to capacities." on policy and practice grew. This came
prepare for, or mitigate the conse- about because NGOs widened their areas
quences of, disasters (Zomer 1997). of engagement with the UN system
A similar formulation has been put (Donini 1995).
forward by two other major European NGO Hitherto, NGOs' links with the system
networks, VOICE and EuronAid (VOICE- had been of two main kinds. First, the UN
EuronAid 1998). between disasters, relief and development granted individual NGOs 'consultative
Their perspective is shared by donors. represents one of the major recurrent status' to its Economic and Social Council
The OECD Development Assistance themes in the history of private foreign (ECOSOC)4.
Committee's guidelines on disaster miti- aid.' (Clarke Guarnizo 1991, p. 50)'. NGOs Second, individual UN agencies deve-
gation ascribe important roles to both have always made significant contri- loped their own working links with
NGOs and the community-based organi- butions to disaster relief efforts. individual NGOs. However, NGOs played
sations (CBOs) that they support. CBOs, Many of the best known NGOs were a marginal role overall. This was mainly
the guidelines state: started in response to humanitarian because the UN's view of the world was
can raise awareness of the hazard crises. The institutional separation of state-centred but it also owed something
risks at the local level and mobilise relief and development programs, begin- to UN officials' rather dismissive view of
the community or groups within to ning in the 1960s and gathering pace in NGOs, and while some UN agencies, such
take steps to reduce their vulnerability the 1970% discouraged NGO activity in as the United Nations High Commissioner
either through local structural mea- DMP, but by the mid-1980s, with the for Refugees (UNHCR), did interact a
sures, and by pressing for central experience of the famine in Africa and good deal with NGOs in the field, most
government involvement in larger other disasters in mind, NGOs were had little to do with them.
structural measures or through the beginning to look more closely at the links During the 1990s NGOs became much
development and introduction of between disasters and development. As more active behind the scenes at the
adaptive or preparedness measures early as 1983 Cuny could write: 'The annual General Assembly and in formal
. . . There are numerous instances of growing awareness by volags [voluntary and informal dialogue with the Secretariat,
such schemes developing spon- agencies] of the connection between Security Council and Secretary-General-
taneously, without external support. disaster response and development is the thereby starting to overcome the strong
NGOs are important because of their single most important trend in disaster barriers of mutual disregard and sus-
involvement in relief programs and ability programs today' (Cuny 1983, p. 257). By picion between UN and NGO staff. They
Australian Journal of Emergency Management
also played a significant role in the several through which to influence policies level before the late 1980s, but in 1993
major international conferences on and programs at the international endorsed a strategy that emphasised the
development held during the decade. level (UN ECOSOC 1998). need to include NGOs in its policy dia-
The more than 1,400 NGOs accredited NGOs' involvement in international logues with governments and to support
to the UN Conference on Environment conferences has been seen as their more effective capacity building in NGOs
and Development (UNCED) at Rio de 'entrance'to the deeper contacts they have (Donini 1995,p.431; Uvin 1995,p.508).
Janeiro in 1992 had a major rolein shaping made with UN organisations (Gordenker
the conference agenda and building the and Weiss 1995, pp. 546-7)6. NGOs and the IDNDR
political consensus behind Agenda 21. The traditional, formal and highly This period of changing relationships
This marked a leap forward in NGO managed system of accreditation to between NGOs and the UN system took
influence, and NGOs continued to play ECOSOC, which is a mechanism for place at the same time as the IDNDR.
important roles in subsequent UN con- consultation by the UN rather than a However, from its beginning, the IDNDR
ferences, for example those on women forum for debate, has been left behind by saw NGOs as peripheral actors, for two
(at Beijing in 1995), social development these developments and possibly even reasons.
(Copenhagen, 1995) and shelter (Istanbul, rendered obsolete, even though the The first was the UN system's traditional
1996)s. number of NGOs becoming accredited view, explicit in the Decade's terms of
At the same time, individual UN increased rapidly during the 1990s: from reference, that 'the primary responsibility
agencies, including the Department for 928 in 199 1 to 1,356 in 1997in allcategories for defining the general goals and direc-
Humanitarian Affairs (DHA) and UNHCR, (UN ECOSOC 1998). Efforts were made to tions of efforts undertaken in the frame-
began to hold regular meetings on policy make the process of accreditation simpler work of an international decade for
and operational issues with the main and to encourage a wider range of NGOs, natural disaster reduction and for imple-
operational NGOs in the humanitarian especially in developing countries (which menting the measures that could result
field. were still largely excluded from these new from the activities of the decade lies with
The growth in NGO numbers, the processes of UN-NGO interaction), to the Governments of the countries con-
expanding extent of their outreach apply for consultative status (UN ECOSOC cerned' (UN General Assembly 1987).
especially vis-a-vis that of the state, the 1996; UN ECOSOC 1998; Go Between 19981 The second reason was more specific
considerable funds disbursed by and 9,p. 11). to the IDNDR itself. It was the belief that
throueh them. and their Dower as lob- There are now some opportunities for significant reduction of disasters' impact
"
byists combined to increase their impor- wider NGO participation in the 'NGO could be achieved principally by the
tance in the eyes of UN officials. A report Committees' on a number of issues run application and dissemination of scien-
to ECOSOC by the UN Secretary-General under the auspices of the Conference of tific and technical knowledge, particularly
in 1998 observed that: NGOs in Consultative Relationship to the to developing countries.
The emergence of non-govern- Economic and Social Council of the As a result, scientific and technological
mental organisations as a definitive United Nations (CONGO): these are open institutions were to play a leading role in
force in the socio-economic arena to all NGOs, whether or not they enjoy implementing the Decade's agenda (UN
presents a challenge to the long- consultative status (UN CONGO 1998). General Assembly 1987; 199 1; 1993; 1994).
standing view of the States as the Contacts in the field-NGOs as advi- This was a narrow base on which to build
exclusive actors in the international sers, project partners or subcontractors- major improvements in disaster reduc-
system. As non-governmental organi- also appear to have expanded rapidly in the tion policies, practice and culture, and the
sations increasingly participate in the 1990s: Some individual UN ag;nci& have lack of 'legal or societal mandate from
development work of intergovern- developed policies and systems for closer the citizens and stakeholders' was to be a
mental bodies and address areas of engagement with NGOs. barrier to success throughout the Decade
primary concern to them, it is inevi- The United Nations Development Pro- (Hays 1999,pp. 276-7).
table that growing numbers of them gramme (UNDP), for instance, did not have The IDNDR system was dominated
will seek an institutionalised channel a framework for dealing with NGOs at field from the start by the scientific institutions
that had promoted it and offered little
scope for NGOs to become involved. The
Notes
IDNDR's advisory body, the'Scientific and
2 mere nave ofen n4rnher 01 uaf alons on tnls bas c set out in 1996 (Gordenker and Weiss 1997: 443-4;
Technical Committee', consisted, as its
theme, lrom pracl lloners and po cy makers te g UN ECOSOC 1996).
MaWeu 1989 Davls 1990. Llnk en 1991 10.1 1. 5. An evaluation of UN world conferences 1990-96 name indicated, of 20-25 'scientific and
~kinne; 1992): by a roundtable meeting convened by the German technical experts. .. selected in consul-
3. The following paragraph is based largely on ibid. development think-tank the Deuische Stifiung for tation with their Governments' (UN
50-103. We are grateful to Dr Clarke for permission to Internationale Entwicklung IDSE) In 1996 agreed that General Assembly 1989).
cite her PhD thesis. NGOs had become more active and significant
When the Committee was set up in
participants In such events whilst conceding that this
4. Article 71 of the founding Charter of the United
was a slow process and that NGOs from developing November 1990, only one of its 25
Nations in 1945 states that: 'The Economic and Social
Comtl may make arrangemenrs lor consultat on w m countries were still largely excluded (DSE 1996). members was from an NGO (the Ethio-
non-governmental organ17alonr hhm are (oncernea 6. The role of the UN Secretary-Genera has also been pian Red Cross Society); the remainder
with matters within ill competence. Such arrangements important. Boutros Boutros-Ghali (Secretary-General were mostly scientists with a few mem
may be made with international organizations and. 1992.61 appears to nave been 1nO.ent.ai n shap ng
bers from government or international
where appropriate, with national organizations afler LX an tudes by h15 open rmgnmon 01 NCOs va uaole
consultation with the Member lstatel of the United role in shaping international policy and the appointment (but still scientific) agencies (STOP
hatsonsc oncemm ILn led Nal.on5 19451 The system of NGO staff to his high-level advisory committees Disasters 1991, pp. 6-7). The IDNDR also
01 ac(re0 tauon IS bared on Resol.tton 1296 aoopled (Donini 1995: 423, 425; Ritchie 1995: 521.22). encouraged governments to form national
oy tCOSOC n 1968 .w Anrie 71 ol tne Lh Chdner 7. We are grateful to Ms Brlchieri-Colombi (nPe IDNDR committees 'in co-operation with
11 v ~ HNSCO r In a eepi mtner man a lunn ona sense, Simmonds) for permission to cite her thesis.
a v ew repealed n the rev sea system of accreo ldi on the relevant scientific and technological
Spring 2001
communities' (UN General Assembly different sizes. Intergovernmental agen- Action did express a shift in emphasis
1987). By 1999 there were 141 national cies sent 41 delegations. from scientific and technological fixes to
committees or focal points. Evidence for There were 47 NGO delegations. In wider disaster prevention strategies and
their commitment and achievements addition some NGO staff were part of capacity building as integral parts of
overall is inconclusive (Simmonds 1999)' their countries' national delegations (El- development planning (IDNDR 1994;
and information on their membership is Sabh 1994,p.334). Simmonds 1999).
not generally available, but their com- The level of NGOs' participation in the This shift may have owed something
position probably varied greatly from one Conference and their influence on its to lobbying in the months running up to
country to another. It is likely that NGOs decisions are hard to measure (El-Sabh the conference, by NGOs as well as others,
did not make up a significant proportion 1994; Davis and Myers 1994). although evidence for this remains
of their members in most cases, although The conference was organised into anecdotal. Perhaps it also owed something
they may have played a more substantial three parts: plenary sessions, the main to the common statement presented by
role in special advisory groups or working committee and a set of seven technical the NGOs at the event, but the main
groups formed by the committees! committees on different aspects of elements of the conference statement had
The scientific community's view of the disasters. Ofthese, the main and technical already been agreed at a preparatory
Decade was articulated by one of its committees were the active sessions meeting of UN and government repre-
leading figures, Sir James Lighthill, where there was room for debate, but the sentatives in Geneva, and some observers
Chairman of the Special Committee for felt that NGO representatives were
the IDNDR of the International Council marginalised at the conference and their
of Scientific Unions, who wrote in the voices were not heard (Davis and Myers
IDNDK's newsletter in 1991: 1994).
To meet the world's objective of a The Yokohama Strategy The Yokohama Strategy and Plan of
major reduction during the 1990's in and Plan of Action Action opened the way for greater
acute human disasters due to natural involvement by NGOs and communities
opened the way for
causes, all the nations most threa- by, for example, noting the need for
tened need the help of scientists: greater involvement by participation in disaster prevention at all
their own scientists operating as part NGOs and communities levels from the community upwards and
of the global confraternity of scien- recognising the value of indigenous
by, for example, noting
tists. That confraternity has spent technical knowledge in mitigation. Key
1989 and 1990 examining ways in the need for participation principles of the Strategy included:
which scientists all over the world in disaster prevention giving emphasis to programs that
can work together to combat types promote community-based approaches
at all levels from the
of natural disaster which, besides to vulnerability reduction
being exceptionally damaging, can community upwards and promoting the involvement of non-
be tackled only by a great, globally recognising the value of governmental organisations in natural
cooperative scientific effort.' hazard management, in particular those
indigenous technical
(Lighthill 1991, p. 8). dealing with environmental and related
Where NGOs were mentioned by name knowledge in mitigation. issues and including indigenous non-
in official UN documents during the governmental organisations (IDNDR
preparations for the Decade and in its 1994,pp. 10-15).
early years, this was within a long list of The Plan of Action based on the Strategy
other actors, with no significance being and its principles reaffirmed the commit-
attached to their role and no comment main committee was the most important ment to 'genuine community involvement'
upon their value (e.g. UN General Assem- in terms ofsetting international priorities. and traditional skills, but-significantly
bly 1989; 1993; 1994). It should also be This prepared theCYokohamaS trategy and -was reluctant to transfer any authority
noted that where the term 'non-govern- Plan of Action' for the rest of the IDNDR to NGOs: here the commitment was
mental organisation' appears in UN (see below) and received national and merely to 'Consider making use of NGO
documents, it is used mostly to refer to regional reports and statements from the support for improved disaster reduction
any organisation that is not strictly delegations. at thelocal level'(lDNDR 1994,pp. 16-17).
governmental, including academic insti- It discussed strategies for enhancing Subsequent resolutions on the IDNDR
tutions and the private sector. interaction between the public sector, at the UN General Assembly do not reveal
The first opportunity to change the private sector and NGOs. The 47 accre- any shift in thinking on the role of NGOs
overall direction of IDNDR came at the dited NGOs presented a common state- (UN General Assembly 1994; 1997). Little
World Conference on Natural Disaster ment to the committee which endorsed changed in terms of NGO representation
Reduction at Yokohama in May 1994, the the general objectives of the IDNDR but
Decade's mid-term review, where it was called for two main improvements. The
Notes
hoped that governments and multilateral first was greater emphasis on the human
8. Of course, influence is not necessarily in direct
agencies would join with other sectors dimensions of risk and vulnerability.
proportion lo numerical representation. For example,
such as science and technology, business, The second was improved integration only six of the German IDNDR Committee's 37 members
industry and NGOs (UN General Assembly of NGOs in UN processes and procedures were from NGOs but three 01 these were lrom the
Genan Red Cross, which also housed the Committee's
1991; 1993). generally and the IDNDR in particular (El-
Secretariat (Eikenberg 1998: 52-61).
There were about 1,500 delegates. The Sabh 1994,pp. 334-5;cf.Warmington 1995,
9. Greater partlclpatlon by and support for NGOs in
main participants were national govern- ~ . 6 ) ~ .
disaster reduNon adivities had also been advocaled in
ments, which sent 147 delegations of The Yokohama Strategy and Plan of preionference meetings kg. DSE 1994: 9.101.
Australian Journal of Emergency Management