Table Of Content..Emergency  Management 
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produced by Emergency Management Australia  Vol 16 No 3  Spring 2001
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The 
Australian 
In this issue .. .  
J-ou rnal of 
Emergen'cy.4 
Management 
Volunteering in Emergency Services: 
the South Australian perspective 
by Adaire Summers 
Missed opportunities: NGOs and the United Nations  I  meA ustralian Journal of Emergency Manage- 
ment is oubllshed bv the Australian Emereencv 
International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction  , 
~ana~imetnnst tltite, MI Matedon, ~iiorii 
by John Twigg and Diane Steiner  i  Australia. Funding for publication Is provided 
by Emergency Management Australia. The 
Conflict over causation of catastrophe  1  journal's circulation is 5,100 copies, distributed 
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Foot and Mouth in Britain: the first 60 days-  1 
The journal endeavours to provide an Infor- 
a problem of dystopia?  I 
mation sharing forum for ail those Involved in 
by Dr Jan P Rockett  I  emergency management.Contribut1ons relating 
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to Australian and International emergency 
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Volunteers' national peak body mooted by Summit  activities, articles identifying and discussing 
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Issues, policies, planning or procedural con- 
repori from the Volunteers Summit  I  cerns, research reports and any other infor- 
i  mation relevant to the emergency and disaster 
Mapping for emergency situations: 
management community are welcome. 
the Canadian experience 
;  The aim of this publication is the exchange of 
by Dr. Kian Fadaie  1  information and views across the Australian 
I  emergency management communily, therefore, 
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Managing natural hazards in the Hawke's Bay,  the views expressed in this journal should not 
New Zealand  I  be taken to be the views of Emergency 
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Summer-September 156~utumn-&ember 
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As  the proud  patron  for  this year's  In their contribution to society and  in uncomfortable, trying and sometimes 
International Year of Volunteers, I have  their support of others, I sense that many  dangerous conditions. In many ways that 
been honoured to meet, work, talk and  volunteers are able to feel a deep inner  is the cutting edge of volunteering. 
plan with many volunteers who have  peace, a feeling which comes to all of us  The National Summit focused on legiti- 
inspired me. It is something that I know a  when we give ourselves to others.  mate areas of concern to volunteers in 
bit about, having been involved, for more  But that does not mean that volunteers  leadership and management positions 
than 40 years, with the whole voluntary  don't need recognition, back-up, encou-  throughout emergency services in Austra- 
cause.  ragement and support, and indeed good  lia. It's a credit to the organisers of the 
I rejoice that this year is an opportunity  management.  National Summit to have placed the key 
to promote the great significance to our  And that brings me to the theme of the  issues of recognition, funding, training 
nation and to the world of voluntary  National Summit for Emergency Manage-  and legal liability squarely on the agenda. 
service.  mentIServices Volunteers 'Value your  The Australian community as a whole 
It is based on a tradition of mutual  volunteers, or lose them'.  wishes all volunteers well in considering 
support, of mateship and practical help  It's hard to imagine that people who  these  important  issues  and  thanks 
that goes back over 200 years of our  have played such a significant role in  volunteers for their continued work on 
history in this harsh, unyielding and  Australia's history as emergency service  its behalt 
sometimes dangerous land. It was an  volunteers could ever be undervalued. I 
obvious thing for the young men in 1914  don't believe volunteers are or have been.  (This message is based on the opening 
to be volunteers. They were simply doing  But there's always an opportunity for a  speech for  the National  Summit for 
what their forebears had always done in  timely reminder.  Emergency ManagementlServices Volun- 
time of need and crisis to come forward  When the nation needs volunteers, they  teers, 11 October 2001.) 
and offer themselves. That's what you  are there-on  land, sea or air; in times of 
have done as volunteers.  fire, flood, cyclone or civil calamity. And 
Today there are many people in our  that's always been the way over the past 
society who may feel powerless to address  100 years of our nationhood. But while 
the social problems around them. Many  the wider community salutes the efforts 
worry about the future but then see its  of volunteers in high profile emergency 
protection  as  being  someone  else's  situations, I know that volunteer contri- 
responsibility.  butions behind the scenes continue day- 
Volunteers are different. Volunteers  by-day, month-by-month and year-by- 
form the fabric of a civil society. They are  year. 
its lifeblood. It is not only important what  It should be said that not everyone is 
you do-of  profound significance though  cut out to be an emergency volunteer. 
that is-it  is also important who you are,  Many volunteers are required to take  Peter Hollingworth 
and what you stand for, and what you  considerable risks. They are called out at  Governor-General ofthe 
contribute to the building of a nation.  short notice. They are expected to work  Commonwealth of Australia
Volunteering  in  Emergency  Services: 
the  South Australian  perspective 
A 
ustralia  would  become  change, and we can be pro-active in 
dysfunctional if it were not for its  directing the changes in ways we desire. 
by Adaire Summers BSSc, Grad Dip Ed, 
volunteers. Volunteers come from  The time between now and the changed 
Volunteer Management consultant, 
all walks of life and provide their services  situation is the "Transition State", and it 
Emergency Services Administrative Unit, 
in many different arenas. From emergency  is this state we must learn to manage. We 
services to the arts, from localised service  South Australia  must learn transition management skills 
delivery to strategic roles such as mem-  and  strategies.'  (Schindler-Rainman 
bership of boards and committees, the  1984). 
input of Australia's volunteers has tradi-  A look  at  the changing trends  in  The  formation  of  the  Emergency 
tionally and continues to be the backbone  volunteering may provide part of the  Services Administrative Unit (ESAU) is 
of this country.The nature of volunteering  answer. There is a perception that there  an indication of the times of change we 
itself is changing, with the increasing  are less older people volunteering. 'There  live in.'lt will be necessary to develop new 
formalisation of the volunteer sector.  is some anecdotal evidence that ageing  and creative ways to involve and integrate 
Some  15 years ago  Eva  Schindler-  Baby Boomers are selfish and not wanting  new populations, and to become familiar 
Rainman (1984) wrote that volunteering  to volunteer' (Volunteering Vision 2001  and comfortable with  organisations 
was moving from the'no longer to the not  July 2000). Older Australians are also  different from our own so that collabo- 
yet'. In real terms, the effect of this on the  healthier and are staying in the workforce  ration becomes easy and natural. We need 
industry of volunteerism means 'Change,  longer, leaving less time to devote to  to be clear about and proud  of  our 
Challenge, Creativity, Choice and Collabo-  volunteering than they historically have.  strengths, skills, and knowledge, and know 
ration' (Schindler-Rainman 1984).  Younger people are volunteering, however,  how to communicate these.' (Schindler- 
The face of Australian volunteers, in  for short periods and sometimes in a  Rainman 1984). 
these rapidly changing times, is also  variety of different sectors. Government  ESAU was formed to provide adminis- 
changing, as is the structure and settings  initiatives such as mutual obligation and  trative functions for three emergency 
in which people volunteer. With changing  increasing emphasis  on  community  service agencies in South Australia, the 
demographics such as urbanisation, the  service through educational institutions  Country Fire Service (CFS), the State 
ageing  population,  zero  population  and the workplace are seen to have  Emergency Service (SES) and the South 
growth and more women entering the  contributed to this. Often younger people  Australian  Metropolitan  Fire  Service 
workforce comes a plethora of issues for  volunteer to gain job skills and for social  (SAMFS). For the purposes of this article, 
the volunteer industry. One group of  reasons, particularly in urban areas.  the focus is on the CFS and SES as local 
volunteers particularly feeling the sharp  There have been limited studies under-  service  delivery  is  via  volunteers. 
edge of these changes is the emergency  taken that indicate there is a difference  Schindler-Rainman (1984) also points out 
service volunteers.  between urban and rural volunteers. It  the necessity of doing things in different, 
Emergency Services in South Australia,  appears that urban volunteers are enticed  new and creative ways. 'To develop new 
with particular reference in this instance  to volunteering more by the prospect of  and different funding patterns and sources; 
to the Country Fire Service (CFS) and the  job skills and social contact and to a  to barter for services, space, equipment 
State Emergency  Service  (SES)  rely  slightly lesser degree to provide service  usage; to find all the ways in which 
entirely on its self-managed, volunteer  to their communities. Rural volunteers  volunteers and professionals can extend 
teams to provide a professional, reliable  tend to be motivated foremost to serve  and humanise our services; to learn to 
and efficient response to a range of  and protect their own lives and properties  understand and utilise new technologies; 
emergencies at the local level. It is difficult  and that of their communities, with social  to become more accountable and cost 
to gain an accurate picture of the total  contact and job skills being a low priority  effective; to evaluate our services, to 
voluntary contributions of Australians as  for these volunteers (Gare 2000).  scrutinise our goal and mission statements 
many organisations that utilise volunteers  Change has been one of the greatest  and, if necessary, to reprioritise and re- 
are still  developing  mechanisms to  issues  affecting  emergency  service  order them or develop new ones; to utilise 
measure their exact numbers and the  volunteers over the past few years, in  the corporate responsibility emphasis and 
hours worked. Conservative estimates are  particular, the last two years in South  commitment more than we have in the 
that around 2.6 million volunteers contri-  Australia. Indeed, Schindler-Rainman  past'. 
bute a total of 433.9 million hours a year  (1984) was almost crystal-ball gazingwhen  Demand for volunteer leaders to adopt 
(Australian Bureau of Statistics 1995).  all those years ago she pointed out that,  modern management practices is increa- 
Good news, but how does this relate to  'nationally and internationally, the Volun-  sing. This is effectively widening the gap 
emergency services, and why, then, is it  teer World is in transition. It is moving  between the 'haves' and the 'have nots', in 
becoming  increasingly  difficult  for  from the past to the present, and from  terms of the experience, knowledge and 
emergency services to recruit and retain  the present to the future. If we manage,  skills of volunteers in emergency services, 
volunteers and, more importantly, what  indeed  strategise,  these  transitions  ESAU, through the Volunteer Management 
can be done about it?  carefully we can impact the direction of  Branch (VMB) provides support services 
Australian Journal of Emergency Management
' 
to assist in closing the gap. Higher levels  campaigns, recognition and retention  also. The new volunteer will expect their 
of accountability and responsibility both  programs. Leadership and management  team to be professional and have integrity, 
on and off the incident battlefield go hand  have a strong focus with training provided  their leader to understand them, what 
1 
in hand with these demands, creating  to  volunteers for  both.  Support  for  makes  them  tick  and to  give  them 
pressures emergency service volunteers  administration functions is also provided  assignments or duties that both com- 
are grappling with on a daily basis.  by the VSO.  pliment and challenge their skills, expe- 
There exists a wide range of skills,  Brokerage services are utilised for  rience and interests. 
experience and knowledge within the  issues such as mediation and conflict  This does not even begin to take into 
emergency service organisations, with a  resolution, whereby the VSO facilitates  account the complex operational func- 
great lean towards the hands on, opera-  external assistance in the resolution of  tions, roles and responsibilities that make 
tionalsideofthe business. Thisleavesgaps  issues at a local level. VSOS also provide  up the core business of the volunteer 
in non-operational aspects of running an  advocacy services when required. For  teams. Wow! A big ask for people who are 
I~  
organisation. As a higher level of accoun-  example, this can  take  the  form of  volunteers and volunteer managers-  the 
tability and responsibility are required,  negotiating with employers, terms and  majority of whom do the job in the first 
support services such as those provided  conditions of release of volunteers for  place  to  protect  their  communities, 
by the VMB are becoming essential to  attendance at incidents.  people who have their own jobs, families 
ensure the long-term healthy functioning  It is becoming increasingly difficult to  and would like a bit of leisure time 
of a brigade or unit. A survey carried out  recruit and retain volunteers in any  occasionally. 
in the UK in 1998 by the Institute for  industry, as previously mentioned. Com-  Sometimes, support, education, advice 
Volunteering  Research  indicates that  petition between organisations for people  and encouragement does not go astray. 
more voluntary organisations are moving  with the necessary skills and interests is  The level of support provided by the 
towards formal structures in volunteer  fierce with prospective volunteers expec-  VSOS varies according to the needs and 
management. Conclusions from  the  ting increasing professionalism when  requests of the brigade or unit. The VSO 
survey support the localised support  they enter voluntary organisations. These  might just provide information on OH&S 
service delivery of the VMB as, 'volunteer  expectations cover a range of areas, such  issues or provide linkages to trained 
management appears to be becoming  as up to date management practices,  OH&S staff. There might be a need for 
increasingly formalised.. .'  exceptional leadership of local volunteers  management training in a range of areas 
Our model of service delivery is quite  and top quality, recognised training.  such as, succession planning, adminis- 
unique. Developments in the volunteer  This begins with impressive recruiting  tration, teamwork, conflict resolution, 
industry over the past  decade move  campaigns and continues with appro-  how to run effective meetings, delegating, 
towards a more professional view of  priate  selection  processes,  job  des-  team communication or dealing with 
volunteer management and involvement.  criptions, induction and orientation, on  difficult people. The VSO is trained and 
Accountability, responsibility and struc-  the job and specialised training that  equipped to deliver these on a local level, 
ture are becoming more the norm in  includes state of the art technology and  usually at the local brigade or unit and 
recent years in contrast to the past, more  up to date equipment (and they deserve  usually on a night volunteers already get 
informal nature of volunteering. Emer-  no less!). The prospective volunteer will  together to train. 
gency service volunteers are responsible  also expect, and be entitled to, open lines  There is a strong demand for VSO's to 
for organising, managing and running  of  communication and  information  assist in the planning and execution of a 
their own organisations, both opera-  about the systems and processes that are  recruitment drive, the induction process, 
tionally and non-operationally. Physical  utilised both internally and within the  setting up or refining administrative 
resources and funding are provided  wider organisation. Information about  systems, planning awards programs, 
through the State with CFS and SES  OH&S policies and procedures, what their  maintaining up to date membership files, 
volunteers responsible and accountable  insurance entitlements are, reimburse-  or just someone to point the direction 
for both.  ment for out of pocket expenses, in fact  through the bureaucratic maze so volun- 
The provision of support and structure  any policy or procedure that protects the  teers can get what they need to do their 
to volunteers through formal mechanisms  volunteer and enhances their volun-  job. 
appears to be a global trend in a variety of  teering contribution.  These localised support services are 
volunteering streams, such as community  Volunteers will also expect to observe a  complemented  by  several  statewide 
service, the arts, health, education, sport  transparent and consultative decision  initiatives of the VMB. Once such initia- 
and recreation, environment and emer-  making process and have recognised  tive is the provision of scholarships for 
gency services. In South Australia, num-  input into that process. There will be an  the Diploma of Community Services 
bers of volunteers in emergency services  explicitly stated vision and mission of  (Volunteer Management). Volunteers are 
(CFS and SES) exceed 20,000. Volunteer  both the larger organisation and the  encouraged to undertake the Diploma, 
management support services are loca-  brigade or unit the volunteer joins. They  which has been developed through a 
lised through regionally based Volunteer  will expect to work as a team to set the  partnership between Volunteering SA and 
Support Officers (VSOS) who work with  direction and goals for the brigade or unit  Onkaparinga TAFE. VMB provides spon- 
individual brigades and units on a local  and will be prepared to undertake the  sorship for volunteers to attend con- 
level as the need dictates with a centrally  tasks  necessary  to do their  part  in  ferences that have a focus on volunteering, 
based coordinated approach to policy  reaching the goals.  with two volunteers recently returning 
and planning.  They will work with people who are  from the 161h World Volunteer Conference 
VSOS provide consultancy services  exceptional communicators, who know  in Amsterdam. Many more volunteers 
around recruitment, retention and recog-  their jobs and their people well, who take  have attended local conferences hosted 
nition of volunteers along with resources  responsibility for their actions and expect  by Volunteering Australia and Volun- 
and tools to assist with recruitment  others to take responsibility for theirs  teering SA. A program of sponsorship to 
I  Spring ZOO1
SAAVA (South Australian Association for  volunteering  in  emergency  services,  References 
Volunteer Administration) is also pro-  demystify the services for them and  Australian Bureau of Statistics  1995, 
vided by VMB.  encourage continuation of their involve-  Voluntary Work Australia, AGPS, Canberra 
Recruiting resources are also available  ment as adults.  Gare B. 2000, The Motivations of Emer- 
on a statewide basis as well as locally and  In conclusion, it appears that with the  gency Service Volunteers, Research Paper. 
include a freecall 1300 telephone number,  increasing demands on volunteers to lead  Institute for  Volunteering Research, 
opportunity for advertisement placement  and manage their teams in a professional  United Kingdom. 1998, www.ivr.org.ukl 
on the 'govolunteer' website, telemar-  manner amidst a rapidly changing envir-  issues.htm 
keting and recruiting brochures and  onment, support services such as those  Saunders P. 2000, Volunteering Vision 
posters.  provided by the VMB are now, and will  2010 Volunteering SA, Adelaide South 
Harnessing the interest of youth in  continue to be, essential to volunteers.  Australia, www.volunteeringsa.org.au 
volunteering in emergency services has  This is a new approach to many volun-  Schindler-Rainman E. 1984, The Journal 
also been an increased focus in recent  teers in CFS and SES and can be con-  of Volunteer Administration. Spring,Volume 
times.  The  appointment  of  a  Youth  sidered part of the long-term change  11, No. 3 pp. 45-49 on www.energizeinc.com 
Programs Officer (YPO) to the VMB serves  process. 
Authors Contact details 
to develop Cadet programs, train Cadet  The change process often takes many 
Adaire Summers, 
Coordinators, develop, implement and  years  as the culture of the services 
Volunteer Management Consultant, 
monitor policies and procedures that will  grapples with new ideas and different 
Volunteer Management Branch, 
enhance young peoples involvement in  ways of achieving objectives. 
Emergency Services Administrative Unit, 
emergency services and provide pathways  Support services such as Volunteer 
60 Waymouth Street, Adelaide 5000 
to volunteering as an adult. The intent of  Management, OH&S and Risk Manage- 
BOX 2706 GPO Adelaide SA 5001 
Cadet  programs  is  to  provide  safe,  ment will develop and grow in line with 
phone: 08 84564101 
structured and enjoyable experiences for  changing needs and demands and will 
email: [email protected] 
young people as they move through their  continue to compliment existing services 
cadetship. This in turn will encourage more  that enhance the operational side of the 
young people to value the experience of  volunteer opportunities.  This article has been refereed 
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b 4  Australian Journal of Emergency Management
Missed  opportunities: 
NGOs and the United Nations International Decade 
for Natural Disaster Reduction 
Introduction  they work at the grass roots, with 
The 1980s put natural disaster mitigation  communities and local organisations 
by John Twig and Diane Steiner, 
and preparedness onto the international  as partners, and take a participatory 
Benfield Greig Hazard Research Centre, 
aid  agenda.  A succession of  severe  approach to development planning; 
University College London, London 
disasters-from  the 1982-4 famines in  this ensures that they respond to the 
the Sahel, the Horn of Africa and Southern  priorities of local people and build on 
Africa to Hurricanes Gilbert and Hugo in  local capacities 
the Caribbean in 1988-9-were  strong  their sense of responsibility to their 
reminders  of  the  power  of  natural  sation for Economic Cooperation and  partners encourages them to make 
hazards.  Development (OECD) countries, spending  long-term commitments to those they 
The  relationship  between  human  almost $3 billion a year and working with  help 
actions and the effects of disasters-the  or alongside 10,000-20,000  developing-  their operational flexibility, relatively 
socio-economic dimension of vulnera-  country NGOs who, in turn, assisted up to  free from bureaucratic structures and 
bility-was  increasingly  well  docu-  100 million people (Edwards and Hulme  systems, enables them to respond and 
mented and argued (Cuny 1983; Wijkman  1992,p.13).  adapt quickly and easily 
and Timberlake 1984; Maskrey  1989;  In 1995 development NGOs were rec-  NGO operations are relatively cheap 
Anderson and Woodrow 198911998).  koned to be spending $7-10 billion a year,  and cost-effective, with low overheads 
International  concern  about these  compared  to  $55 billion  in  official  NGOs are constantly questioning the 
questions led to the creation of the  development  assistance  from  OECD  effectiveness of their approach, iden- 
United  Nations  (UN)  International  governments (Smillie 1995, p. 14). The  tifying emerging issues and attempting 
Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction  proportion of official aid channelled to  new methods, which places them at the 
(IDNDR) which ran from 1990 to 1999  and through NGOs increased from 0.7%  cutting edge of development thinking 
(UN General Assemblv 1987). The Inter-  of OECD aid in 1975 to 3.6% in 1985, and  and practice 
national Framework of Action launching  at least 5% in 199314. With donors and the  their culture (at policy and operational 
the IDNDR, approved by the UN General  UN  now relying heavily on NGOs as  level) is collaborative, not competitive; 
Assembly in December  1989, set the  implementing partners in humanitarian  they are keen to share lessons where 
international community the objective of  operations, NGO capacity has also he  this will help others 
reducing the impact of disasters through  come crucial to the functioning of the  they attempt to give disempowered or 
'concerted international action', with the  international relief system (Borton and  marginalised people a voice in policy 
-t win goals of:  Macrae 1997, p. 45; Hendrickson 1998, p.  discussions with the rich and powerful; 
improving each country's capacity for  16).  their day-to-day work with the people 
dealing with the problem  The NGO sector's increasing popularity  of the South enables them to make links 
devising appropriate guidelines and  with governments and official aid agen-  between the'micro' and 'macro'environ- 
strategies for applying scientific and  cies is partly a response to recent shifts in  ments 
technical knowledge.  development thinking-the  so-called  Similar arguments are used in assessing 
It called on governments to take a series  'New Policy Agenda' based on neo-liberal  the value of NGOs' contribution to relief 
of actions, of which the principal ones  economics and liberal democratic theory  ooerations. 
were to:  that endorses the retreat of the state  Brian iieldner. former lntcrn3tional 
-  formulate national mitigation programs  (Edwards and Hulme 1996,pp. 4-5; Wallace  Ihrcctor of the Lutheran \ilorlJ Federation's 
take part in the concerted international  et al 1997, pp. 13-25).  humanitarian aid program, identifies four 
action  But the sector's rapid growth worldwide 
establish national committees  in recent decades is also due very largely 
encourage support from the public and  to the widespread perception-among  aid  Notes 
-  private sectors  and development professionals, aca-  1. Debates about NGO definition and typology have 
been lenahv and larceiv inmnclusive. We have used a 
increase public awareness of risk and  demics, donor agencies, governments and 
set ol key diarafler~siiasa  rue 01 thumb lo aetermme 
the value of preventative measures (UN  the public-that  NGOs are particularly 
nnat const.tt.les an NGO, base0 on the NCDO thane! 
General Assembly 1989).  effective in running development pro-  drawn UD the Liaison Committee of Deveiooment NGOs 
grams.  lo the Lropean Lnlon (ha son Comml:lee  19971 an0 
NGOs in development and disasters  A variety of features are normally cited  moo lkd lo encompdss hGOs n Oeveiopmg 1o.ntrler 
an0 lnose muolueo n tellel  Tnese charaaertsl rs Inc ude 
NGO1 activities form a significant part of  to justify this perception, which can be 
a belief in soclai justice and serving the interests of 
development and relief work in devel-  s- ummed up as follows:  communities, a base in civil society, non-prolit-making 
oping countries. In 1993 there were an  NGOs choose to work with and on  aims, legal identity and accountability to donors and 
beneficiaries.  This approach conforms to everyday 
estimated 4,000 non-governmental devel-  behalf  of  those most  in  need: the 
usage in relief and development circles.  I1 excludes 
opment organisations based in Organi-  poorest and most vulnerable  universities and other academic or research institutions.. 
I 
Spring 2001
main characteristics of NGOs' contri-  to support CBOs (for example, they are  1990, with the added impetus of the 
bution here:  already assisting CBOs with small grants,  IDNDR, one might expect disaster miti- 
they adopt a 'people-to-people  ap-  providing technical advice and exchan-  gation to have been placed firmly on the 
proach'  ging information between CBOs facing  NGO agenda. 
they are flexible operationally  similar hazards).  Evidence in the literature for NGO 
their inputs are pragmatic and task-  NGOs are also 'often well placed to test,  commitment to DMP in the 1990s iselusive 
oriented  develop and disseminate innovations  and contradictory. There are positive and 
they can respond promptly (Neldner  which may substantially reduce vul-  negative examples of the extent and 
1996,pp. 27-29).  nerability at the community or household  quality of NGO involvement (Twigg et al. 
A report to the Government of Nepal in  level: The document suggests that donors  2000, pp.  3-4, 21-23). Research on this 
1990 argued that the NGO sector should be  could  support such  NGO  work  and  subject that we have recently completed 
mobilised to deliver relief because 'most  encourage NGOs to become involved; it  in five countries indicates considerable 
NGOs operate at the grass-roots, and are  also recommends that NGOs be encou-  variations in the type ofwork undertaken, 
better equipped in terms of superior  raged  to  take  part  more  in  official  approaches adopted and their effec- 
training  and  organisation  to  impart  committees and task forces (OECD-DAC  tiveness in reducing risk, the extent to 
immediate relief' (King Mahendra Trust1  1994,~1.9 )2.  which DMP is systematised within NGO 
Interdisciplinary Analysts 1990, pp. 69-70).  NGO involvement in DMP is difficult  operational systems and structures, and 
A number of commentators have en-  to chart, even though 'The relationship  the degree to which it is integrated with 
couraged or endorsed NGO  involvement  other development and relief work by 
in natural disaster mitigation and pre-  NGOs and other actors. 
paredness (DMP) for similar reasons.  NGO DMP activity appears generally to 
For example, APRODEV, a network of the  be on the increase but it still tends to be 
'Because NGOs have 
major European NGOs associated with the  unsystematic and the ideal of main- 
Protestant churches, maintains that there  direct links with  streaming mitigation  in  sustainable 
is a wealth of experience among devel-  development  programming  remains 
the grass roots in 
oping-country NGOs in dealing with  distant in many cases, especially for rapid- 
natural disasters and summarises NGOs'  developing countries,  onset hazards (Twiggetal. 2000; Luna 2000; 
comparative advantages as follows:  Matin and Taher 2000; Rocha and Chris- 
they can easily 
Because NGOs have direct links  toplos 2000; Shumba 2000a). 
with the grass roots in developing  identify potential 
countries, they can easily identify  NGOs and the UN system 
threats and 
potential threats and vulnerabilities,  NGOs have played a role in UN develop- 
as well as mobilise people's capacities.  vulnerabilities, as well  ment  and  humanitarian  affairs  for 
NGOs are therefore particularly well  decades. In the 1990s, though, they became 
as mobilise people's 
placed to support local initiatives  much more involved and their influence 
(often with very small costs) to  capacities."  on policy and practice grew. This came 
prepare for, or mitigate the conse-  about because NGOs widened their areas 
quences of, disasters (Zomer 1997).  of  engagement with  the UN  system 
A similar formulation has been put  (Donini 1995). 
forward by two other major European NGO  Hitherto, NGOs' links with the system 
networks, VOICE and EuronAid (VOICE-  had been of two main kinds. First, the UN 
EuronAid 1998).  between disasters, relief and development  granted individual NGOs 'consultative 
Their perspective is shared by donors.  represents one of the major recurrent  status' to its Economic and Social Council 
The  OECD  Development  Assistance  themes in the history of private foreign  (ECOSOC)4. 
Committee's guidelines on disaster miti-  aid.' (Clarke Guarnizo 1991, p. 50)'. NGOs  Second, individual UN agencies deve- 
gation ascribe important roles to both  have always made significant contri-  loped  their own working links with 
NGOs and the community-based organi-  butions to disaster relief efforts.  individual NGOs. However, NGOs played 
sations (CBOs) that they support. CBOs,  Many of the best known NGOs were  a marginal role overall. This was mainly 
the guidelines state:  started in response to humanitarian  because the UN's view of the world was 
can raise awareness of the hazard  crises. The institutional separation of  state-centred but it also owed something 
risks at the local level and mobilise  relief and development programs, begin-  to UN officials' rather dismissive view of 
the community or groups within to  ning in the 1960s and gathering pace in  NGOs, and while some UN agencies, such 
take steps to reduce their vulnerability  the 1970% discouraged NGO activity in  as the United Nations High Commissioner 
either through local structural mea-  DMP, but by the mid-1980s, with the  for Refugees (UNHCR), did interact a 
sures, and by pressing for central  experience of the famine in Africa and  good deal with NGOs in the field, most 
government involvement in larger  other disasters in mind, NGOs were  had little to do with them. 
structural measures or through the  beginning to look more closely at the links  During the 1990s NGOs became much 
development and introduction of  between disasters and development. As  more active behind the scenes at the 
adaptive or preparedness measures  early as 1983 Cuny could write: 'The  annual General Assembly and in formal 
. . . There are numerous instances of  growing awareness by volags [voluntary  and informal dialogue with the Secretariat, 
such  schemes developing spon-  agencies] of the connection between  Security Council and Secretary-General- 
taneously, without external support.  disaster response and development is the  thereby starting to overcome the strong 
NGOs are important because of their  single most important trend in disaster  barriers of mutual disregard and sus- 
involvement in relief programs and ability  programs today' (Cuny 1983, p. 257). By  picion between UN and NGO staff. They 
Australian Journal of Emergency Management
also played a significant role in the several  through which to influence policies  level before the late 1980s, but in 1993 
major  international  conferences  on  and programs at the international  endorsed a strategy that emphasised the 
development held during the decade.  level (UN ECOSOC 1998).  need to include NGOs in its policy dia- 
The more than 1,400 NGOs accredited  NGOs' involvement in international  logues with governments and to support 
to the UN  Conference on Environment  conferences has been  seen  as their  more effective capacity building in NGOs 
and Development (UNCED) at Rio de  'entrance'to the deeper contacts they have  (Donini 1995,p.431; Uvin 1995,p.508). 
Janeiro in 1992 had a major rolein shaping  made with UN organisations (Gordenker 
the conference agenda and building the  and Weiss 1995, pp. 546-7)6.  NGOs and the IDNDR 
political consensus behind Agenda 21.  The traditional,  formal and highly  This period of changing relationships 
This marked a leap forward in NGO  managed  system  of  accreditation  to  between NGOs and the UN system took 
influence, and NGOs continued to play  ECOSOC,  which  is  a  mechanism  for  place at the same time as the IDNDR. 
important roles in subsequent UN  con-  consultation by the UN  rather than a  However, from its beginning, the IDNDR 
ferences, for example those on women  forum for debate, has been left behind by  saw NGOs as peripheral actors, for two 
(at Beijing in 1995), social development  these developments and possibly even  reasons. 
(Copenhagen, 1995) and shelter (Istanbul,  rendered  obsolete,  even  though  the  The first was the UN system's traditional 
1996)s.  number of NGOs becoming accredited  view, explicit in the Decade's terms of 
At  the  same  time,  individual  UN  increased rapidly during the 1990s: from  reference, that 'the primary responsibility 
agencies, including the Department for  928 in 199 1 to 1,356 in 1997in allcategories  for defining the general goals and direc- 
Humanitarian Affairs (DHA) and UNHCR,  (UN ECOSOC 1998). Efforts were made to  tions of efforts undertaken in the frame- 
began to hold regular meetings on policy  make the process of accreditation simpler  work of an international  decade for 
and operational issues with the main  and to encourage a wider range of NGOs,  natural disaster reduction and for imple- 
operational NGOs in the humanitarian  especially in developing countries (which  menting the measures that could result 
field.  were still largely excluded from these new  from the activities of the decade lies with 
The growth in NGO  numbers, the  processes of UN-NGO interaction), to  the Governments of the countries con- 
expanding extent  of  their  outreach  apply for consultative status (UN ECOSOC  cerned' (UN General Assembly 1987). 
especially vis-a-vis that of the state, the  1996; UN ECOSOC 1998; Go Between 19981  The second reason was more specific 
considerable funds disbursed by and  9,p. 11).  to the IDNDR itself. It was the belief that 
throueh them. and their Dower as lob-  There are now some opportunities for  significant reduction of disasters' impact 
" 
byists combined to increase their impor-  wider NGO participation in the 'NGO  could be achieved principally by the 
tance in the eyes of UN officials. A report  Committees' on a number of issues run  application and dissemination of scien- 
to ECOSOC by the UN Secretary-General  under the auspices of the Conference of  tific and technical knowledge, particularly 
in 1998 observed that:  NGOs in Consultative Relationship to the  to developing countries. 
The emergence of non-govern-  Economic and Social Council of  the  As a result, scientific and technological 
mental organisations as a definitive  United Nations (CONGO): these are open  institutions were to play a leading role in 
force in the socio-economic arena  to all NGOs, whether or not they enjoy  implementing the Decade's agenda (UN 
presents a challenge to the long-  consultative status (UN CONGO 1998).  General Assembly 1987; 199 1; 1993; 1994). 
standing view of the States as the  Contacts in the field-NGOs  as advi-  This was a narrow base on which to build 
exclusive actors in the international  sers, project partners or subcontractors-  major improvements in disaster reduc- 
system. As non-governmental organi-  also appear to have expanded rapidly in the  tion policies, practice and culture, and the 
sations increasingly participate in the  1990s: Some individual UN ag;nci&  have  lack of 'legal or societal mandate from 
development work of intergovern-  developed policies and systems for closer  the citizens and stakeholders' was to be a 
mental bodies and address areas of  engagement with NGOs.  barrier to success throughout the Decade 
primary concern to them, it is inevi-  The United Nations Development Pro-  (Hays 1999,pp. 276-7). 
table that growing numbers of them  gramme (UNDP), for instance, did not have  The IDNDR system was dominated 
will seek an institutionalised channel  a framework for dealing with NGOs at field  from the start by the scientific institutions 
that had promoted it and offered little 
scope for NGOs to become involved. The 
Notes 
IDNDR's advisory body, the'Scientific and 
2  mere nave ofen n4rnher 01 uaf alons on tnls bas c  set out in 1996 (Gordenker and Weiss 1997: 443-4; 
Technical Committee', consisted, as its 
theme, lrom pracl lloners and po cy makers te g  UN ECOSOC 1996). 
MaWeu 1989 Davls 1990. Llnk en  1991  10.1 1.  5. An evaluation of UN world conferences 1990-96  name indicated, of 20-25 'scientific and 
~kinne; 1992):  by a roundtable meeting convened by the German  technical experts. .. selected in consul- 
3. The following paragraph is based largely on ibid.  development think-tank the Deuische Stifiung for  tation with  their  Governments'  (UN 
50-103.  We are grateful to Dr Clarke for permission to  Internationale Entwicklung IDSE) In 1996 agreed that  General Assembly 1989). 
cite her PhD thesis.  NGOs had become more active and significant 
When the Committee was set up in 
participants In such events whilst conceding that this 
4. Article 71 of the founding Charter of the United 
was a slow process and that NGOs from developing  November  1990, only one of  its 25 
Nations in 1945 states that: 'The Economic and Social 
Comtl may make arrangemenrs lor consultat on w m  countries were still largely excluded (DSE 1996).  members was from an NGO (the Ethio- 
non-governmental organ17alonr hhm are (oncernea  6. The role of the UN Secretary-Genera has also been  pian Red Cross Society); the remainder 
with matters within ill competence. Such arrangements  important.  Boutros Boutros-Ghali (Secretary-General  were mostly scientists with a few mem 
may be made with international organizations and.  1992.61 appears to nave been 1nO.ent.ai  n shap ng 
bers from government or international 
where appropriate, with national organizations afler  LX an tudes by h15 open rmgnmon 01 NCOs va uaole 
consultation with the Member lstatel of the United  role in shaping international policy and the appointment  (but still scientific) agencies  (STOP 
hatsonsc oncemm  ILn led Nal.on5 19451  The system  of NGO staff to his high-level advisory committees  Disasters 1991, pp.  6-7). The IDNDR also 
01 ac(re0 tauon IS bared on Resol.tton  1296 aoopled  (Donini 1995: 423, 425; Ritchie 1995: 521.22).  encouraged governments to form national 
oy tCOSOC n 1968 .w Anrie 71 ol tne Lh Chdner  7. We are grateful to Ms Brlchieri-Colombi (nPe  IDNDR committees 'in co-operation with 
11 v ~ HNSCO r In a eepi mtner man a lunn ona sense,  Simmonds) for permission to cite her thesis. 
a v ew repealed n the rev sea system of accreo ldi on  the relevant scientific and technological 
Spring 2001
communities' (UN General Assembly  different sizes. Intergovernmental agen-  Action did express a shift in emphasis 
1987). By 1999 there were 141 national  cies sent 41 delegations.  from scientific and technological fixes to 
committees or focal points. Evidence for  There were 47 NGO delegations. In  wider disaster prevention strategies and 
their commitment and achievements  addition some NGO staff were part of  capacity building as integral parts of 
overall is inconclusive (Simmonds 1999)'  their countries' national delegations (El-  development planning (IDNDR 1994; 
and information on their membership is  Sabh 1994,p.334).  Simmonds 1999). 
not generally available, but their com-  The level of NGOs' participation in the  This shift may have owed something 
position probably varied greatly from one  Conference and their influence on its  to lobbying in the months running up to 
country to another. It is likely that NGOs  decisions are hard to measure (El-Sabh  the conference, by NGOs as well as others, 
did not make up a significant proportion  1994; Davis and Myers 1994).  although  evidence  for  this  remains 
of their members in most cases, although  The conference was organised into  anecdotal. Perhaps it also owed something 
they may have played a more substantial  three parts: plenary sessions, the main  to the common statement presented by 
role in special advisory groups or working  committee and a set of seven technical  the NGOs at the event, but the main 
groups formed by the committees!  committees  on  different  aspects  of  elements of the conference statement had 
The scientific community's view of the  disasters. Ofthese, the main and technical  already been agreed at a preparatory 
Decade was articulated by one of its  committees were the active sessions  meeting of UN and government repre- 
leading figures,  Sir  James Lighthill,  where there was room for debate, but the  sentatives in Geneva, and some observers 
Chairman of the Special Committee for  felt  that  NGO  representatives  were 
the IDNDR of the International Council  marginalised at the conference and their 
of Scientific Unions, who wrote in the  voices were not heard (Davis and Myers 
IDNDK's newsletter in 1991:  1994). 
To meet the world's objective of a  The Yokohama Strategy  The Yokohama Strategy and Plan of 
major reduction during the 1990's in  and Plan of Action  Action  opened  the  way  for  greater 
acute human disasters due to natural  involvement by NGOs and communities 
opened the way for 
causes, all the nations most threa-  by, for example, noting the need for 
tened need the help of scientists:  greater involvement by  participation in disaster prevention at all 
their own scientists operating as part  NGOs and communities  levels from the community upwards and 
of the global confraternity of scien-  recognising the value of  indigenous 
by, for example, noting 
tists. That confraternity has spent  technical knowledge in mitigation. Key 
1989 and 1990 examining ways in  the need for participation  principles of the Strategy included: 
which scientists all over the world  in disaster prevention  giving  emphasis to  programs  that 
can work together to combat types  promote community-based approaches 
at all levels from the 
of natural disaster which, besides  to vulnerability reduction 
being exceptionally damaging, can  community upwards and  promoting the involvement of non- 
be tackled only by a great, globally  recognising the value of  governmental organisations in natural 
cooperative  scientific  effort.'  hazard management, in particular those 
indigenous technical 
(Lighthill 1991, p. 8).  dealing with environmental and related 
Where NGOs were mentioned by name  knowledge in mitigation.  issues and including indigenous non- 
in official UN  documents during the  governmental organisations (IDNDR 
preparations for the Decade and in its  1994,pp. 10-15). 
early years, this was within a long list of  The Plan of Action based on the Strategy 
other actors, with no significance being  and its principles reaffirmed the commit- 
attached to their role and no comment  main committee was the most important  ment to 'genuine community involvement' 
upon their value (e.g. UN General Assem-  in terms ofsetting international priorities.  and traditional skills, but-significantly 
bly 1989; 1993; 1994). It should also be  This prepared theCYokohamaS trategy and  -was  reluctant to transfer any authority 
noted that where the term 'non-govern-  Plan of Action' for the rest of the IDNDR  to NGOs: here the commitment was 
mental  organisation'  appears  in  UN  (see below) and received national and  merely to 'Consider making use of NGO 
documents, it is used mostly to refer to  regional reports and statements from the  support for improved disaster reduction 
any organisation that is not strictly  delegations.  at thelocal level'(lDNDR 1994,pp. 16-17). 
governmental, including academic insti-  It discussed strategies for enhancing  Subsequent resolutions on the IDNDR 
tutions and the private sector.  interaction between the public sector,  at the UN General Assembly do not reveal 
The first opportunity to change the  private sector and NGOs. The 47 accre-  any shift in thinking on the role of NGOs 
overall direction of IDNDR came at the  dited NGOs presented a common state-  (UN General Assembly 1994; 1997). Little 
World Conference on Natural Disaster  ment to the committee which endorsed  changed in terms of NGO representation 
Reduction at Yokohama in May 1994, the  the general objectives of the IDNDR but 
Decade's mid-term review, where it was  called for two main improvements. The 
Notes 
hoped that governments and multilateral  first was greater emphasis on the human 
8. Of course, influence is not necessarily in direct 
agencies would join with other sectors  dimensions of risk and vulnerability. 
proportion lo numerical representation. For example, 
such as science and technology, business,  The second was improved integration  only six of the German IDNDR Committee's 37 members 
industry and NGOs (UN General Assembly  of NGOs in UN processes and procedures  were from NGOs but three 01 these were lrom the 
Genan Red Cross, which also housed the Committee's 
1991; 1993).  generally and the IDNDR in particular (El- 
Secretariat  (Eikenberg 1998: 52-61). 
There were about 1,500 delegates. The  Sabh 1994,pp. 334-5;cf.Warmington 1995, 
9. Greater partlclpatlon by and support for NGOs in 
main participants were national govern-  ~ . 6 ) ~ .  
disaster reduNon adivities had also been advocaled in 
ments, which sent 147 delegations of  The Yokohama Strategy and Plan of  preionference meetings kg. DSE 1994: 9.101. 
Australian Journal of Emergency Management
Description:The. Australian. In this issue  . Journal. - of. Volunteering in Emergency Services: the South Australian perspective by Adaire Summers. Missed opportunities: NGOs and the United Nations .. team communication or dealing with difficult people.  be introduced into Christian theology. (Eyles 1993).