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AmOSPIlERIC
MICROBIAL
AEROSOLS
Bruce Lighthart
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Corvallis, OR
A. J. Mohr
U.S. Army, Dugway Proving Ground
Dugway, UT
o
SPIIE RIC
CROBIAL
AEROSOLS
Theory and Applications
Edited hy
BRUCE LIG T
AlAN JEFF MOHR
~
CHAPMAN & HALL
New York· London
First published in 1994 by
Chapman & Hall
One Penn Plaza
New York, NY 10119
Published in Great Britain by
Chapman & Hall
2-6 Boundary Row
London SEI 8HN
Color illustration: Dispersion maps of 50,000 (or 10,000 in bottom row) simulated viable
bacterial droplets deposited (left column) or deposited and airborne (right column) 15
(A,F), 30 (B,G), 45 (C,H), and 60 min (D,E,I,J) after spray initiation at Tulelake, CA
on 28 May 1988.
© 1994 Chapman & Hall, Inc.
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1s t edition 1994
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in
any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or by an information storage or retrieval
system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Disclaimer. Tltis book was written in part, and edited by Bruce Lighthart in his private
capacity. No official support or endorsement by the Environmental Protection Agency or
any other agency of the Federal government is intended or should be inferred.
Certain chapters are written by employees of the government of the United States of
America and may not be copyrighted.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Atmospheric microbial aerosols-theoretical
and applied aspects / edited by Bruce Lighthart and A.J. Mohr.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Air-Microbiology. 2. Aerosols. I. Lighthart, B. II. Mohr.
A. J. (Alan Jeff)
QRlOl.F9 1994
576'. 190961-dc20 93-2375
CIP
ISBN-13: 978-1-4684-6440-5 e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4684-6438-2
DOl: 10.1007/978-1-4684-6438-2
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data available.
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Dedication
This book is dedicated with pride to my wonderful family Anne, Ian and Allie
Mohr, and to my dear wife Gloria Lighthart.
Contents
Contributors ix
1. Introduction
B. Lighthart and A. J. Mohr
2. Physics of Microbial Bioaerosols 5
B. Lighthart
3. Atmospheric Environment of Bioaerosols 28
J. Kim
4. Distribution of Microbial Bioaerosol 68
B. Lighthart and L. Stetzenbach
5. Deposition, Adhesion, and Release of Bioaerosols 99
H. H. Wickman
6. Death Mechanisms in Microbial Bioaerosols with Special Reference to 166
the Freeze-Dried Analog
E. Israeli, J. Gitelman, and B. Lighthart
7. Resuscitation of Microbial Bioaerosols 192
B. Marthi
8. Instrumentation Used with Microbial Bioaerosol 226
P. A. Jensen, B. Lighthart, A. J. Mohr, and B. T. Shaffer
9. Dispersion Models of Microbial Bioaerosol 285
B. Lighthart
10. Health Aspects of Microbial Bioaerosols 304
H. Salem and D. E. Gardner
11. Regulatory Issues for Bioaerosols 331
P. Sayre, J. Burckle, G. Macek, and G. LaVeck
12. Safety and Containment of Microbial Bioaerosols 365
B. Johnson and I. G. Resnick
Index 385
vii
Contributors
Dr. John Burckle Dr. Gerry LaV eck
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory Office of Pesticides and Toxic
Cinncinati, OH Substances
401 M St.
Dr. Donald E. Gardner Washington, DC 20460
U.S. Army
Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010
Dr. Bruce Lighthart
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Dr. Janina Gitelman 200 SW 35th St.
Institute for Biological Research Corvallis OR 97333
Ness-Ziona, Isreal
Dr. G. Macek
Dr. Eitan Israeli
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Institute for Biological Research
Office of Pesticides and Toxic
Ness-Ziona, Isreal
Substances
401 M St.
Dr. Paul A. Jensen
Washington, DC 20460
National Institute of Occupation Safety and
Health
4676 Columbia Rd. Dr. Balkumar Marthi
Cinncinati, OH 45226 Hindustan Lever Ltd.
Microbiology Department
Research Ctr, Chakala
Ms. Barbara Johnson
Andheri (East)
U.S. Army
Dugway Proving Ground Bombay, India 400099
Dugway, UT 84022
Dr. Alan J. Mohr
Dr. Jinwon Kim U.S. Army
Lawrence Livermore Laboratory Dugway Proving Ground
Livermore, CA Dugway, UT 84022
ix
x / Contributors
Dr. I. Gary Resnick Ms. Brenda T. Shaffer
U.S. Anny ManTech Environmental, Inc.
Dugway Proving Ground 200 SW 35th St.
Dugway, UT 84022 Corvallis, OR 97333
Dr. Harry Salem Dr. Linda Stetzenbach
U.S. Army Environmental Research Center
Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010 University of Nevada, Las Vegas
Las Vegas, NV 89154
Dr. Philip Sayre
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Dr. Hollis H. Wickman
Office of Pesticides and Toxic National Science Foundation
Substances Washington, DC 20550
401 M St.
Washington, DC 20460
1
Introduction
An aerosol is a colloidal suspension of liquid droplets or solid particles in air.
A bioaerosol is then defined as an aerosol whose components contain, or have
attached to them, one or more microorganisms. Consequently, a microbial bioaer
osol contains microorganisms such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, or algae
that are usually viable, i.e., alive. Bioaerosols may be relatively solid particles
or liquid droplets and range in size from a single microorganism to large droplets.
These droplets may contain many microorganisms, pollen grains, and agglomera
tions andlor rafts of microorganisms attached to particulate plant debris, skin
flakes, andlor soil particles (Fig. 1.1). Liquid droplets larger than one organism
may change in size upon evaporation (or condensation), leaving an aeroplanktonic
residue of nonvolatile solute, particulate matter and/or viable or non-viable mi
crooganisms. (To avoid the confusion of the changing condition of a liquid
droplet evaporating to a dry particle, bioaerosols in this state will be termed
droplet/particles or DIPs.)
The atmospheric load of bioaerosols comes from many natural and anthropo
genic sources. Natural bioaerosols are generated when wind conditions entrain
individual droplets and particles into the surrounding bulk atmosphere (Fig. 1.2).
Wind-driven soil dust, plant debris, wave spray, bubble bursting, and rainsplash
also contribute to the atmospheric load. Bioaerosols generated by human activities
may be due to extramural and intramural processes. Extramural bioaerosols are
produced as sprays in liquid droplets from nozzles in agricultural applications
(Fig. 1.3), spray from manufacturing processes, bursting bubbles from wastewa
ter treatment plants, and spray drift from nuclear cooling towers, or as dry particles
from urban vehicular activity and rural agricultural practices, and perhaps even
shedding from buildings. Intramural bioaerosols may be generated during walk
ing, sneezing, coughing, talking, shedding of skin flakes, surgical and dental
processes, and household activities including ventilation with or without air
conditioning, household cleaning, toilet flushing, and so on.
1
