Arctic Life of Birds and Mammals: Including Man

203 Pages·1972·5.97 MB·English

by  Laurence Irving (auth.)

Zoophysiology and Ecology
Volume
2
Managing Editor D.S. Farner
Editors
W. S. Hoar· J. Jacobs· H. Langer· M. Lindauer
Co-Editors
G. A. Bartholomew· D. Burkhardt· W. R. Dawson
D. Kennedy . P. Klopfer . P. Marler . C. L. Prosser
L. B. Slobodkin . H. Waring· K. E. F. Watt
J. Wersall . W. Wickler
Laurence Irving
Arctic Life of Birds
and Mammals
Including Man
With 59 Figures
Springer-Verlag
New York . Heidelberg . Berlin 1972
LAURENCE IRVING
Professor of Zoophysiology
Institute of Arctic Biology
University of Alaska
Fairbanks, Alaska/USA
ISBN 978-3-642-85657-0 ISBN 978-3-642-85655-6 (eBook)
DOl 10.1007/978-3-642-85655-6
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© by Springer-Verlag Berlin' Heidelberg 1972. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 72-79584.
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1s t edition 1972
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Contents
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 2
Environment of Arctic Life. 4
Geographical Characteristics. . . . 4
Small Extent of Polar Regions . 4
Geographic Asymmetry between Arctic and Antarctic 4
Eurasian and American Arctic Compared. 4
Arctic Seasons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Isotherms: East-West Asymmetry. . . 7
Annual Solar Cycle. . . . . . . . . . . 8
Freezing and Prolongation of Winter . 8
Permafrost. . . . 9
Spring Breakup . . . . 11
Sea Ice . . . . . . . . . 11
Ice Caps and Glaciers. 12
Areas Occupied by Life . 12
Tundra .......... 13
Taiga. . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Similarity in Circumpolar Arctic Conditions. 15
History of Arctic Climates. . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Pleistocene Glaciation . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Land Bridge between Alaska and Siberia. 16
Refuges in Glacial Periods: Beringia. 17
Migrations of Man to America. 17
Early: Indians. . . . . . . . . . . 17
Eskimos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Extinction of Large Land Mammals . 19
Adjustments of Climatic Change . 19
References ............. 20
Chapter 3
Mammals of the Arctic. 22
Palaearctic and Nearctic Regions. 22
Arctic Native Human Populations. 22
Russian Arctic Settlement . 23
Northern American People .. 23
Arctic Mammals . . . . . . . . . 25
Polar Bears and Arctic Foxes. 25
Survey of Arctic Land Mammals. 26
v
Migrations by Arctic Land Mammals . 28
Sea Mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Numbers of Seals and Ice-breeding . . 29
Ice-breeding Harbor Seals and White-coated Pups . 29
Gray Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
White-coated Pups of Other Arctic Seals . 30
Migrations of Arctic Seals . . . . . . . . 30
Harbor, Ringed, and Bearded Seals. 30
Harp and Hooded Seals . 31
Walrus. . . . . . . . 31
Whales. . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Arctic Residents. . . . . 31
Migrants to Arctic Waters. 32
Arctic Mammals of the Late Pleistocene. . . . . . 32
Resettlement of Lands as Wisconsin Ice Caps Melted. 33
Resettlement from Beringia . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Post-Wisconsin Invasion from a North Greenland
Refuge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 34
Recapitulation of Views upon Post-Wisconsin Popu-
lations 34
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 35
Chapter 4
Arctic Land Birds and Their Migrations. . . . . . . . . .. 37
Birds Resident in High-arctic Latitudes. . . . . . . . .. 37
Winter Birds of the Alaskan Tundra and Adjacent Forests 38
Tundra ............ 38
Margin of Arctic Forest. . . . 42
Survival in the Beringian Refuge. 42
Migrations of Birds. . . . . . . . 43
Migrations to Arctic Alaskan Tundra. 44
Winter Residence Places of Arctic Migrants. 44
Migrations Along Western American Coasts to Nest
on Interior Alaskan Tundra. . . . . . 45
Migrations Overland in North America. 46
Oceanic and Asian Migrations to Alaska. 47
Migrations from Europe to Greenland. . 48
Stability and Extent of Eskimo Knowledge of Birds. 49
Indications for Changes in Range of Birds. 49
Changes in Habits of Birds. . . . . . . 51
Wisconsin and Post-glacial Migrations. 53
Land Birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Maritime and Oceanic Birds . . . . 53
Organization of Migrating Populations . 55
Sex and Age Organization of Willow Ptarmigan. 56
VI
Central Point in Migration of Willow Ptannigan. .. 56
Survey of Composition of Flocks . . . . . . . . . .. 56
Migrations in Other Parts of Alaska. . . . . . . . . 58
Organization of Migrating Lapland Longspurs . 58
Migration Over Approaches to Arctic Alaska. 58
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
ChapterS
Maintenance of Arctic Populations: Birds . 62
The Influx of Birds to Breed on Arctic Lands. . 62
Some Common Limitations on Arctic Life . 63
Birds of the Interior Tundra. . . . . 63
Duration of Arrival. . . . . . . . . 63
Interval from Arrival to Nesting. . 64
Number of Eggs Laid in a Clutch. 66
Duration and Wannth of Incubation. 67
Newly-hatched Young. . . 69
Success in Arctic Breeding . 69
Nesting in the High Arctic. . . 70
Birds of High-arctic Lands. 71
Colonial Maritime Birds . . . . 72
Sea Birds that Nest in Arctic Colonies. 72
Nesting on Arctic Atlantic Shores. . . 73
Diversity in Schedules of Breeding. 76
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Chapter 6
Maintenance of Arctic Populations of Mammals . 79
Marine Mammals that Breed on Ice. . . . . . 79
Seals and Walrus of Bering Sea. . . . . . . 79
Seasonal Conditions and Exposure of "PUPS . 80
Condition of Pups at Birth" . " .... " . 81
Development through Weaning . . . . . . . . 81
Special Condition of Walrus Pups. . . . . 82
Geographical Variation in Development of
Pups of Harbor Seals . 82
Mammals that Breed on Land . 83
Musk Oxen . . . . . . . 84
Reindeer and Caribou . 84
Caribou of Canada . 85
Caribou of Alaska . 86
Lemmings . . " . . . . . 87
Distribution of Taxa. 87
Fecundity and Cyclic Variations in Numbers" 88
Explanation of Cyclic Variations in Numbers. 89
American Lemmings . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 89
VII
Lemmings at Baker Lake. . . . . . . . . . 90
Lemmings at Barrow - 1949 . . . . . . . . 90
Lemmings at Barrow and Their Predators. 91
Periodic Southward Invasion by Snowy Owls. .. 91
Population Cycles and the Northern Catch of Furs . . .. 91
Arctic Foxes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Traditional Use of Dens and Distinction of Taxa. 92
Polar Bears . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Dens and Cubs . . . . . . . . . 93
Scope of Wandering by Bears. 93
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Chapter 7
Warm Temperature of Birds and Mammals. 95
Early Reports from Arctic Explorers . 95
Warmth of Arctic and Other Animals. 95
Arctic Mammals . . . . . . . . . . 96
Birds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Contrast of Environmental and Animal Warmth. 97
Variations in Temperature of the Body. 98
Birds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Temperature of Sleeping Men. . . . 100
Elevation of Temperature in Exercise. 101
General Observations on Temperature in the Body. 102
References .....' ................. 102
Chapter 8
Maintenance of Warmth by Variable Insulation. 104
Insulation of Arctic Animals by Fur and Feathers. 104
Insulation of Tropical Mammals. 105
Size and Insulation. . 106
Insulation of Birds . . . . . . . . . . 106
Aquatic Birds and Mammals . . . . . 107
Formulation of Thermal Balance with Environmental
Temperature .................... 107
Model of Heat Production by Regulated Warmth . 109
Maximum of Variable Insulation. . . . 109
Formulation of Economy of Animal Heat. 110
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Chapter 9
Metabolic Supply of Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 114
Comparison of Specific Metabolic Rates . . . . . . . .. 114
Metabolic Rates of Northern and Tropical Mammals 115
Metabolic Rates of Marine Mammals . . . . . . . .. 117
VIII
Basal Metabolism of Birds. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 118
Human Basal Metabolic Production of Heat. . . .. 120
Adaptive Value of Basal Metabolic Production of
Heat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 121
Lower Critical Temperatures of Mammals. . 121
Variation in Critical Temperature. . . . . 123
A View of Behavior of Wild Mammals. 124
Heat of Small Mammals. . . . 125
Lower Critical Temperatures of Some Tropical
Mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 126
Lower Critical Temperature of Birds. . . . . 126
Effect of Wind. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 129
Conversion of Food to Heat and Activity.. 129
Daily Activity of Arctic Willow Ptarmigan. 129
Bioenergetics of Snowy Owls . 133
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Internal Temperature . . . . . . . . . 133
Basal Metabolic Production of Heat. . 133
Resting Metabolic Production of Heat . 134
Metabolic Thermogenesis Induced by Cold. 134
Insulation 134
References .................... 135
Chapter 10
Heterothermic Operation of Homeotherms . . . . . . . 137
Gradients of Temperature from Depth to Surface. 137
Bare Legs of Arctic Aquatic Birds. . . . . . 138
Circulation through Cold Webbed Feet. 138
Vascular Heat Exchangers . . . . . . 139
Adaptation of the Gull Foot for Cold. . 139
Adaptation of Peripheral Nerve for Cold. 140
Thermal Gradients Over the Body . 140
Persistence of Cold in Extremities . 140
Heterothermic Operations in Mammals . 141
Feet of Porcupines and Dogs. . . . . . 141
Extremities of Arctic Mammals. . . . 142
Maintenance of Warmth in Feet Standing on Ice 143
Operation of Nerves in Heterothermic Mamma-
lian Extremities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 145
Comparison of Homeothermic Internal and Hete
rothermic Peripheral Nerves. . . . . . . . 145
Peripheral and Internal Nerves of Seals. . .. 146
Reactivity of Heterothermic Arteries to
Adrenaline ................. 146
Tolerance of Cold by Nerves. . . . . . . .. 146
Cellular Activity in Heterothermic Tissues.. 147
IX
Melting Points of Fats from Heterothermic
Tissues. . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Insulation of Mammals without Fur. . 150
Adipose Tissues as Insulators. . . 150
Insulation of Swine. . . . . . . . 151
Insulation of Seals by Heterothermic Tissues. .. 152
Thermal Gradients through Blubber. . . . .. 153
Thermal Gradient in Flippers. . . . . . . .. 154
Topographic Variation in Surface Temperature 155
Insulation of Polar Bears . . . . 156
Seasonal Change of Insulation. 156
Thermoregulation in Walrus . 157
Thermoregulation in Whales . 158
Ontogeny of Effective Thermoregulation in Seals. 159
Size and the Use of Adipose Tissue for Insulation. 161
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Chapter 11
Size and Seasonal Change in Dimensions. . . . . . . 163
Temperature in Production of Heat. . . . . . . . 163
Size of Animals and Their Economy of Heat. 163
Climatic Rules . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Seasonal Flexibility of Insulation. . . . 165
Use of Posture to Vary Insulation. . . 166
Differences in the Distribution of Fur. 168
Small Mammals in Winter. . . . . . . . . 169
Weight and Stature of Arctic Willow Ptarmigan. 170
African and South American Large Mammals. 171
Size and Reserves of Heat and Energy. . . 171
Natural Fasting in Hibernation. . . . . 172
Fasting Periods in Normal Life Cycles. 172
Fasting by Mammals. . . . . . 173
Seasonal Change in Myoglobin. 173
Ontogeny of Thermoregulation. 174
Birds ............ 174
Altricial Young Mammals. 174
Calves of Caribou 175
Some Conclusions 175
References 176
Chapter 12
Insulation of Man . 178
Historical Use of Clothing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 178
Early Contact with Arctic Eskimos. 178
Shelter and Clothing of Eskimos. . 179
Urban Man's Adjustment to Cold. . 181
x
Adjustments of Men Native to Cold Climates. 182
Physiological Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Warmth in a Cold Night. . . . . . . . 182
Examples of Special Adjustment for Cold. 183
A Nepalese Pilgrim. . . . . . . . . . . 183
Immersion in Cold Water. . . . . . . 183
Swimmers Racing Across the English Channel. 184
Warm Hands of Arctic People. . . . . . . . . . 184
True Tolerance of Cold Hands and Feet. . . . . 184
Comments on Insulation of Mammals without Fur. 187
References 189
Subject Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
XI