Table Of Content`Aqidah at-Tahawiyyah
byal-ShaykhImamAbuJa`far AlWarraqAt-Tahawial-Misri,
rahmat-Ullahalayh
TableofContents
1. Introduction
2. At-Tawhid
3. TheProphet
4. TheQur'an
5. Likenessof Allah
6. VisionofAllah
7. ATrueMuslim
8. Al-Mi`raj
9. Al-Hawd
10.As-Shafa`ah
11.Al-Qadr
12.Al-Lawhwa-l-Qalam
13.Al-`Arshwa-l-Kursi
14.TheAnbiya
15.Al-Ummah
16.Al-Akhirah
17.As-Sahabah
18.Al-`Ulama'wa-l-Awliya'
19.IslamicUnity
20.Ad-Du`ah
Introduction
byIqbalAhmadA`zami
InTheNameof Allah,MostGracious,MostMerciful
ImamTahawi'sal-`Aqidah,representativeoftheviewpointof Ahlu-s-Sunnahwa-l-
Jama`ah, haslong beenthe mostwidelyacclaimed,andindeedindispensable,
referenceworkonMuslimbeliefs,of whichthis isaneditedEnglishtranslation.
ImamAbuJa`farAhmadibnMuhammadibnSalamahibnSalmahibn`Abdal
MalikibnSalmahibnSulaimibnSulaimanibnJawabal-Azdi, popularly knownas
ImamTahawi,afterhis birth-placeinEgypt,is amongthe mostoutstanding
authoritiesoftheIslamicworldonhadithandfiqhand kalam.Helived239-321H.,
anepochwhenboththedirectandindirect disciplesofthefourImams:ImamAbu
Hanifah,ImamMalik, ImamAsh-Shafi`iandImamAhmadibnHanbal -were
teachingandpracticing.Thisperiodwasthezenithofhadithandfiqhstudies,and
ImamTahawistudiedwithallthelivingauthoritiesoftheday.Hebeganasa
studentofhis maternaluncle,Isma`ilibnYahyaMuzni.aleading disciple of Imam
al-Shafi`i.Instinctively,however,ImamTahawifeltdrawntothe corpusofImam
AbuHanifah's works.Indeed,hehadseenhis uncleandteacherturningtothe
worksof HanafischolarstoresolvethornyissuesofFiqh,drawingheavilyonthe
writingsofImamMuhammadibnal-Hasanal-ShaybaniandImamAbuYusuf,who
hadcodifiedHanafifiqh.ThisledImamTahawitodevotehis wholeattentionto
studyingtheHanafiworksandheeventuallyjoinedthe Hanafischool. Imam
Tahawistandsoutnotonlyasa prominentfollowerof theHanafischoolbut,inview
orhisvasteruditionandremarkablepowers of assimilation,asoneofitsleading
scholars.His monumentalscholarlyworks,suchas SharhMa`anial-Atharand
Mushkilal-Athar,areencyclopedicinscopeandhavelong beenregardedas
indispensablefortrainingstudentsoffiqh.Al-`Aqidahat-Tahawiyyah,thoughsmall
insize,isabasictextforalltimes,listingwhat aMuslimmust knowandbelieveand
inwardlycomprehend. Thereis consensus amongtheCompanions,Successors and
alltheleadingIslamicauthoritiessuchas ImamAbuHanifah,ImamAbuYusuf,
ImamMuhammad,ImamMalik,ImamShafi`iandImamAhmadibnHanbalon
thedoctrines enumeratedinthis work.Forthesedoctrinessharedby Ahlu-s-
Sunnahwa-l-Jama`ahowetheirorigintotheHolyQuranandconsistentand
confirmedahadith-theundisputedprimarysourcesof Islam.Beinga textonthe
Islamicdoctrines,this workdrawsheavilyontheargumentssetforthintheHoly
Qur'anandSunnah.Likewise, thearguments advancedinrefuting theviewsof
sectsthat havedeviatedfromtheSunnah,arealsotakenfromtheHoly Qur'anand
Sunnah.As regardsthesects mentionedinthis work,astudyofIslamichistory up
tothetimeofImamTahawiwouldbe quitehelpful.References tosects suchas
Mu`tazilah,Jahmiyyah,Qadriyah,andJabriyah arefoundinthework. Moreover,it
containsallusionsto theunorthodoxanddeviantviewsoftheShi`ah,Khawarijand
suchmysticsas haddepartedfromtherightpath.Thereisanexplicitreferencein
theworktothedangerous controversyonKhalq-al-Qu'raninthetimesofMa`mun
andsomeother`AbbasidCaliphs. Whilethepermanentrelevanceof thestatements
ofbeliefinal-`Aqidahisobvious,thehistorical weightandpointofcertainof these
statementscanbeproperlyappreciatedonlyif theworkisusedasatextforstudy
undertheguidanceof somelearnedpersonabletoelucidateitsargumentsfully,
withreferencetotheintellectualandhistoricalbackgroundofthesects refutedin
thework.Suchstudy helps oneto betterunderstandtheIslamicdoctrines andavoid
thedeviations of thepastorthepresent.MayAllahgrantusa trueunderstandingof
faithandincludeuswiththosetowhomAllahrefersas
"Thosewho believe,fearAllahanddogooddeeds;andhewhofearsAllah,endures
affliction,thenAllahwillnotwastetherewardof well-doers."
At-Tawhid:TheOnenessofAllah
WesayaboutAllah's unitybelieving -byAllah'shelp-thatAllahis One,without
anypartners.ThereisnothinglikeHim.Thereis nothingthatcanoverwhelmHim.
Thereis nogodotherthanHim. Heis theEternalwithouta beginning andenduring
withoutend.Hewillneverperishorcometoanend.Nothinghappens exceptwhat
Hewills.Noimaginationcanconceiveof Himandnounderstanding can
comprehendHim. Heis differentfromanycreatedbeing. Heis livingandnever dies
andis eternallyactiveandneversleeps. Hecreateswithout His beinginneedto do
soandprovides forHis creationwithoutany effort.Hecauses deathwithnofear
andrestorestolifewithout difficulty.Hehas alwaysexistedtogetherwithHis
attributessincebeforecreation.Bringing creationinto existencedidnotadd
anythingto Hisattributesthatwasnotalready there.As Hewas,togetherwithHis
attributes,inpre-eternity,soHewillremainthroughoutendless time.Itwasnot
onlyaftertheactofcreationthat HecouldbedescribedastheCreatornorwas it
onlybytheactof originationthatHecouldhedescribedastheOriginator.Hewas
always theLordevenwhentherewasnothingtobeLordof,andalwaystheCreator
evenwhentherewasno creation.InthesamewaythatHeistheBringertolifeof
thedead,afterHehas broughtthemtolifeafirsttime,anddeserves thisname
beforebringingthemto life,sotooHedeserves thenameofCreatorbeforeHehas
createdthem.Thisis becauseHehas thepowertodoeverything, everythingis
dependentonHim,everythingiseasyforHim,andHe does notneedanything.
"Thereis nothinglikeHimandHeistheHearer,theSeer". [ash-Shura42:11]
HecreatedcreationwithHis knowledge.HeappointeddestiniesforthoseHe
created.Heallottedtothemfixedlifespans.Nothingaboutthemwashiddenfrom
HimbeforeHe createdthem,andHe knew everythingthattheywoulddobeforeHe
createdthem. Heorderedthemtoobey HimandforbadethemtodisobeyHim.
Everythinghappensaccording to Hisdecreeandwill,andHiswillisaccomplished.
TheonlywillthatpeoplehaveiswhatHewills forthem.WhatHewills forthem
occursandwhat Hedoesnotwill,does notoccur.Hegivesguidanceto whoeverHe
wills,andprotects them,and keeps themsafefromharm,outof Hisgenerosity;and
Heleads astraywhoeverHewills,andabasesthem,andafflicts them, outofHis
justice.Allofthemare subjectto HiswillbetweeneitherHis generosityorHis
justice.Heisexaltedbeyondhavingopposites orequals.NoonecanwardoffHis
decreeorputbackHis commandoroverpowerHisaffairs.Webelieveinallofthis
andarecertainthat everythingcomesfromHim.
TheProphet
AndwearecertainthatMuhammad,sall-Allahu`alayhiwasallam, is Hischosen
servantandselectedProphetandHisMessengerwithwhomHeis wellpleased.And
that heistheSealoftheProphetsandtheImamof the God-fearingandtheMost
HonouredofalltheMessengersandtheBelovedof theLordofalltheWorlds.
Everyclaimto prophethoodafterHimisfalsehoodanddeceit. Heistheonewho has
beensent toallthejinnandallmankindwithTruthandGuidanceandwithLight
andIllumination.
The Qur'an
TheQur'anis thewordof Allah.ItcamefromHimasspeechwithoutitbeing
possibletosay how.Hesentit downonHis Messengeras revelation. Thebelievers
acceptit,asabsolutetruth.Theyarecertainthatitis,intruth,thewordof Allah. It
is notcreated,asisthespeechof humanbeings,andanyonewhohears itandclaims
thatitis humanspeechhas becomeanunbeliever.Allahwarns himandcensures
himandthreatens himwithFirewhenHesays,ExaltedisHe:
"IwillburnhimintheFire."[al-Muddaththir74:26]
WhenAllahthreatens withtheFirethosewho say
"Thisisjusthumanspeech."[al-Muddaththir74:25]
Weknow forcertainthatitistheSpeechoftheCreatorof mankindandthatitis
totallyunlikethespeechof mankind.
LikenessofAllah
Anyonewhodescribes Allahasbeinginanywaythesameas ahumanbeing has
becomeanunbeliever. Allthosewhograspthiswilltake heedandrefrainfrom
sayingthingssuchas theunbelievers say,andtheywillknowthatHe,inHis
Attributes,is notlikehumanbeings.
Visionof Allah
TheSeeingofAllahby thePeopleoftheGarden(Al-Jannah)is true,withouttheir
visionbeingall-encompassingandwithoutthemannerof theirvisionbeing known.
AstheBookof ourLordhas expressedit:
"Faces onthatDay radiant,lookingattheirLord".[al-Qiyamah75:22-3]
Theexplanationofthis is as Allahknowsandwills.Everythingthat has comedown
tousabout thisfromtheMessenger, mayAllahblesshimandgranthimpeace,in
authentictraditions,isas hesaidandmeanswhatheintended.Wedo notdelveinto
that, tryingtointerpret itaccordingtoourownopinionsorlettingourimaginations
havefreerein.Nooneissafeinhisreligionunlesshesurrenders himself completely
toAllah,theExaltedandGlorifiedandto His Messenger, mayAllahbless himand
granthimpeace,andleavestheknowledgeofthingsthatareambiguous totheone
who knows them.
ATrueMuslim
Aman'sIslamisnotsecureunless itisbasedonsubmissionandsurrender.Anyone
whodesires to knowthings whichitis beyondhis capacity to know,andwhose
intellectisnot contentwithsurrender,willfindthathis desireveils himfroma pure
understandingof Allah'sTrueUnity,clear knowledgeandcorrectbelief,andthat
heveers betweendisbeliefandbelief,confirmationanddenialandacceptanceand
rejection.Hewillbesubjecttowhisperings andfindhimselfconfusedandfullof
doubt, beingneitheranacceptingbelievernora denyingrejecter.Belief ofa manin
theseeingofAllahbythepeopleof the Gardenis notcorrectifheimagineswhatit
is like,orinterpretsitaccording tohisownunderstanding sincetheinterpretation
ofthisseeingor,indeed,the meaningofanyof thesubtlephenomena whicharein
therealmof Lordship,isbyavoidingitsinterpretationandstrictlyadheringto the
submission. ThisistheDinofMuslims.Anyonewhodoes notguardhimself against
negatingtheattributes of Allah,orlikeningAllahtosomethingelse,hasgoneastray
andhas failedto understandAllah'sGlory,becauseourLord,theGlorifiedandthe
Exalted,canonly possiblybe describedintermsofOnenessandAbsolute
Singularityandnocreationis inanywaylikeHim. Heisbeyondhavinglimits
placedonHim,orbeingrestricted,or having parts orlimbs.NorisHecontainedby
thesix directionsasall createdthingsare.
Al-Mi`raj:TheAscension
Al-Mi`raj(TheAscentThroughthe Heavens)istrue.TheProphet,sall-Allahu
`alayhiwa-sallam,was takenby nightandascendedinhis bodilyform, whileawake,
throughtheheavens,to whatever heights Allahwilledforhim.Allahennobledhim
inthewaythatHeennobledhimandrevealedtohimwhat Herevealedtohim,
"andhis heartwasnot mistakenaboutwhathesaw"[al-Najm53:11].
Allahblessedhimandgrantedhimpeaceinthisworldandthenext.
Al-Hawd:ThePool
Al-Hawd,(thePoolwhichAllahwillgranttheProphet,sall-Allahu`alayhiwa
sallam,asanhonourto quenchthethirstofHis UmmahontheDayOf Judgement),
is true.
Ash-Shaf`ah:TheIntercession
Ash-Shaf`ah,(theintercession),istrue,asrelatedinthe(confirmed)ahadith.
Al-Qadr:TheDecree
ThecovenantwhichAllahmadewithAdamandhis offspringistrue. Allahknew,
beforetheexistenceoftime, theexactnumberofthosewhowouldentertheGarden
(Al-Jannah)andtheexactnumberofthosewhowouldentertheFire(Jahannam).
Thisnumberwillneitherbeincreasernordecreased.Thesameappliestoallactions
doneby people,whicharedoneexactlyasAllah knewtheywouldbedone.Everyone
is casedtowhat hewas createdforanditistheactionwithwhicha man's lifeis
sealedwhichdictates his fate.Thosewhoarefortunatearefortunatebythedecree
ofAllah,andthosewho arewretchedarewretchedby thedecreeof Allah.Theexact
natureofthedecreeisAllah's secretinHiscreation,andnoangelneartheThrone,
norProphetsentwitha message, hasbeengivenknowledgeof it.Delvingintoitand
reflecting too muchaboutitonlyleadsto destructionandloss,andresults in
rebelliousness.So beextremelycarefulaboutthinkingandreflectingonthis matter
orlettingdoubts aboutitassailyou,becauseAllahhas kept knowledgeofthedecree
awayfromhumanbeings,andforbiddenthemtoenquireaboutit,sayinginHis
Book,
"HeisnotaskedaboutwhatHedoes butthey areasked".[al-Anbiya'21:23]
Soanyonewhoasks:"WhydidAllahdothat?"hasgoneagainstajudgementof the
Book,andanyonewho goesagainstajudgementoftheBookisanunbeliever.This
insumiswhatthoseof Allah'sfriendswithenlightenedheartsneedto knowand
constitutesthedegreeof thosefirmly endowedwithknowledge.Fortherearetwo
kindsof knowledge: knowledgewhichisaccessibletocreatedbeings,andknowledge
whichisnotaccessibletocreatedbeings.Denyingthe knowledgewhichisaccessible
is disbelief,andclaimingthe knowledgewhichisinaccessibleisdisbelief.Beliefcan
onlybefirmwhenaccessibleknowledgeis acceptedandinaccessible knowledgeis
notsoughtafter.
Al-Lawhwa-l-Qalam:TheTabletandThePen
Webelieveinal-Lawh(TheTablet)andal-Qalam(ThePen)andineverything
writtenonit.Evenif allcreatedbeingswereto gathertogetherto makesomething
failtoexist,whoseexistenceAllahhadwrittenontheTablet,theywouldnotbeable
todoso.Andifallcreatedbeings weretogathertogetherto makesomethingexist
whichAllahhadnotwrittenonit,theywouldnotbeableto doso.ThePenhas
driedhavingwrittendownallthatwillbeinexistenceuntiltheDayofJudgement.
Whatevera personhas missedhewouldhavenevergotit,andwhateveronegets, he
wouldhavenevermissedit.Itisnecessaryfortheservantto knowthat Allah
already knowseverythingthatisgoingto happeninHiscreationanddecreeditina
detailedanddecisiveway.ThereisnothingthatHehascreatedineithertheheavens
ortheearththatcancontradictit,oraddtoit, oreraseit,orchangeit, ordecrease
it,orincreaseitinany way.Thisis afundamentalaspectofbeliefandanecessary
elementof allknowledgeandrecognitionof Allah'sOnenessandLordship.As Allah
says inHisBook:
"Hecreatedeverything anddecreeditheadetailedway."[al-Furqan25:2]
AndHealsosays:
"Allah'scommandis alwaysadecideddecree". [al-Ahzab33:38]
SowoetoanyonewhoargueswithAllahconcerningthedecreeandwho,witha sick
heart,starts delvingintothis matter.Inhis delusoryattempttoinvestigatethe
Unseen,heis seekingasecretthatcanneverbeuncovered,andheends upanevil-
doer, telling nothing butlies.
Al-`Arshwa-l-Kursi:the ThroneandtheChair
Al-`Arsh(theThrone)andal-Kursi(theChair) aretrue.Heisindependentofthe
Throneandwhatisbeneathit. Heencompasses everything (althoughnotinthe
senseof space)andisaboveit(withoutbeinginadirection),andwhatHehas
createdis incapableofencompassing Him.
Al-Anbiya:theProphets
Wesaywithbelief,acceptanceandsubmissionthatAllahtookIbrahimas an
intimatefriendandthatHespokedirectlyto Musa.Webelieveintheangels,and
theProphets,andthebooks whichwererevealedto themessengers,andwebear
witnessthat theywereallfollowingthe manifestTruth.
Al-Ummah:TheCommunity
Wecallthepeopleof ourqiblahMuslims andbelieversaslongas they acknowledge
whatthe Prophet, sall-Allahu`alayhiwasallam, brought,andacceptastrue
everythingthathesaidandtoldusabout.WedonotenterintovaintalkaboutAllah
nordoweallowanydisputeaboutthereligionOfAllah.Wedonotargueaboutthe
Qur'anandwebearwitness thatitis thespeechoftheLord of alltheWorldswhich
theTrustworthySpiritcamedownwithandtaughtthemost honouredOf allthe
Messengers,Muhammad, mayAllahbless himandgranthimpeace.Itis thespeech
ofAllahandnospeechof anycreatedbeingis comparabletoit.Wedonot saythat
itwas createdandwedonotgoagainsttheJama`ahoftheMuslims regardingit.
Wedo notconsiderany of thepeopleofourqiblahtoheunbelieversbecauseofany
wrongactiontheyhavedone, aslongastheydo notconsider thatactiontohavebeen
lawful.
Nordowesaythatthewrongactionofa manwhohas belief doesnot havea
harmfuleffectonhim. WehopethatAllahwillpardonthepeopleofrightaction
amongthebelievers andgrantthementranceintotheGardenthroughHis Mercy,
butwecannotbecertainofthis,andwecannot bearwitnessthatitwilldefinitely
happenandthat theywillbeintheGarden.Weaskforgivenessforthepeopleof
wrongactionamong theBelieversand,althoughweareafraidforthem,wearenot
indespairaboutthem. Certaintyanddespairbothremoveonefromthereligion,
butthepathof truthforthepeopleof theqiblahliesbetweenthetwo(e.g.aperson
mustfearandbeconscious of Allah'sreckoningaswellas behopefulofAllah's
mercy).Apersondoes notstepoutorbeliefexceptby disavowingwhatbroughthim
intoit.Belief consistsofaffirmationby thetongueandacceptanceby theheart.And
thewholeof whatisprovenfromtheProphet,uponhimbepeace,regarding the
Shari`ahanditsinterpretationistrue.Belief is,atbase,thesameforeveryone,but
thesuperiorityof someoverothers initisduetotheirfearandawareness of Allah,
theiroppositiontotheirdesires,andtheirchoosingwhatis morepleasingtoAllah.
Allthebelieversare friendsofAllahandthenoblestoftheminthesightof Allahare
thosewhoarethemostobedientandwho mostcloselyfollowtheQur'an.Belief
consists of belief inAllah.HisAngels, HisBooks,HisMessengers,theLastDay,and
beliefthattheDecree- boththegoodofitandtheevilofit,thesweetofitandthe
bitterorit -is allfromAllah.Webelieveinallthesethings.We do not makeany
distinctionbetweenany of themessengers,weacceptas truewhatallofthem
brought.ThoseoftheUmmahofMuhammad, may Allahblesshimandgranthim
peace,whohavecommittedgravesinswillbeintheFire,butnotforever,provided
theydieandmeetAllahasbelievers affirming His unityevenif theyhavenot
repented.Theyaresubjectto His willandjudgement.If Hewants,Hewillforgive
themandpardonthemoutofHisgenerosity,asis mentionedintheQur'anwhenHe
says:
"AndHeforgivesanythinglessthanthat (shirk)towhoeverHewills"[an-Nisa'4:
116]
andifHewants,HewillpunishthemintheFireoutof Hisjusticeandthenbring
themoutoftheFirethroughHis mercy,andfortheintercessionof thosewhowere
obedientto Him,andsendthemtotheGarden. Thisis becauseAllahis the
Protectorof thosewho recognizeHimandwillnottreat themintheNextWorldin
thesamewayasHetreatsthosewho deny HimandwhoarebereftofHisguidance
andhavefailedtoobtainHis protection.
OAllah,YouaretheProtectorofIslamandits people;makeusfirminIslamuntil
thedaywemeetYou. Weagreewithdoingtheprayerbehindanyof thepeopleof
theqiblahwhetherright-actingorwrong-acting,anddoing thefuneral prayerover
anyofthemwhenthey die.Wedonotsaythat anyofthemwillcategoricallygoto
eithertheGardenortheFire,andwedonotaccuseanyofthemof kufr(disbelief),
shirk(associating partnerswithAllah),ornifaq(hypocrisy),aslongasthey have
notopenlydemonstratedanyofthosethings.WeleavetheirsecretstoAllah.Wedo
notagreewith killinganyoftheUmmahof Muhammad, sall-Allahu`alayhiwa
sallam,unless itisobligatoryby Shari`ahto do so.Wedo notrecognize rebellion
againstourImamorthoseinchargeofouraffairseveniftheyareunjust,nordowe
wishevilonthem,nordowewithdrawfromfollowingthem.Weholdthatobedience
tothemispartof obediencetoAllah,TheGlorified,andthereforeobligatoryaslong
asthey donotorderto commitsins.Weprayfortheirrightguidanceandpardon
fromtheirwrongs.Wefollow theSunnahoftheProphetandtheJama`ahof the
Muslims,andavoiddeviation,differencesanddivisions.Welovethepeopleof
justiceandtrustworthiness,andhatethepeopleofinjusticeandtreachery.When
our knowledgeaboutsomethingis unclear,wesay:"Allah knowsbest". Weagree
withwipingoverleathersocks (inWudu)whetheronajourneyorotherwise,justas
has comeinthe(consistentandconfirmed)ahadith. Hajjandjihadunderthe
leadershipof thoseinchargeof theMuslims, whethertheyarerightorwrong-
acting,arecontinuingobligationsuntiltheLastHourcomes.Nothing canannulor
controvertthem.
Al-Akhirah:TheWorldtoCome
WebelieveinKiramanKatibun(thenobleangels)whowritedownouractionsfor
Allahhas appointedthemoverusastwoguardians.WebelieveintheAngelof
Deathwhois chargedwithtakingthespiritsofalltheworlds.Webelieveinthe
punishmentinthegraveforthosewho deserveit,andinthequestioninginthe
gravebyMunkarandNakiraboutone'sLord,one'sreligionandone'sprophet,as
has comedowninahadithfromtheMessengerofAllah, mayAllahblesshimand
granthimpeace,andinreports fromtheCompanions,mayAllahbepleasedwith
themall.Thegraveiseitheroneofthe meadows of theGardenoroneofthepitsof
theFire.Webelieveinbeing broughtbacktolifeafterdeathandinbeing
recompensedforouractionsontheDayofJudgement,andal-`Ard,havingbeen
shownthemandal-Hisab,broughtto accountforthem.AndQira'atal-Kitab,
readingthebook,andtherewardorpunishmentsandinal-Sirat(theBridge)and
al-Mizan(theBalance). TheGardenandtheFirearecreatedthings thatnevercome
toanendandwebelievethatAllahcreatedthembeforetherestof creationand
thencreatedpeopletoinhabiteachof them.Whoever Hewills goestotheGarden
outof HisBountyandwhoeverHewillsgoes totheFirethroughHisjustice.
Everybodyactsinaccordancewithwhatis destinedforhimandgoestowardswhat
hehasbeencreatedfor.Goodandevilhavebothbeendecreedforpeople.The
capabilityintermsofTawfiq(DivineGraceandFavour)whichmakes anaction
certaintooccurcannotbeascribedtoa createdbeing.Thiscapabilityis integral
withaction,whereasthecapabilityofanactionintermsof having thenecessary
Description:`Aqidah at-Tahawiyyah by al-Shaykh Imam Abu Ja`far Al Warraq At-Tahawi al-Misri, rahmat-Ullah alayh. Table of Contents. 1. Introduction. 2.
