Alcohol: Anthropological/Archaeological Perspectives

21 Pages·0.208 MB·English

by  Dietler M.

ANRV287-AN35-13 ARI 13August2006 7:29
Alcohol: Anthropological/
Archaeological Perspectives
Michael Dietler
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w DepartmentofAnthropology,UniversityofChicago,Chicago,Illinois60637;
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006.35:229-hael Dietler AFAindrvnstaunp.cuRebeolvin.shAMendtahoyrn1ol1pin,oe2l.0a20s06a0R6.e3v5ie:2w2i9n–49 KmaetyerWialocrudltsure,colonialism,feasts,gender,identity
ol. 2Mic TheAnnualReviewofAnthropologyis Abstract
hropby onlineatanthro.annualreviews.org Alcoholisaspecialformofembodiedmaterialcultureandthemost
nt Thisarticle’sdoi: widely used psychoactive agent in the world. It has been a funda-
A
v. 10.1146/annurev.anthro.35.081705.123120 mentallyimportantsocial,economic,political,andreligiousartifact
e
nnu. R CAlolpryigrhigthstre(cid:2)cser2v0e0d6byAnnualReviews. fgoargmemilelenntnwiait.hTahlcisorheovliedwurainssgesthseesptarestntdwsoindtehceadaensthsirnocpeotlhoegiAcanlneuna-l
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0084-6570/06/1021-0229$20.00 Reviewlastcoveredthissubject.Ithighlightsthegrowingarchaeo-
logicalcontributionstothefield,aswellasrecentdevelopmentsby
sociocultural anthropologists and social historians. Increasing his-
toricizationhasbeenausefulcorrectivetotheearlierfunctionalist
emphasisonthesociallyintegrativeroleofdrinking.Recentstud-
iestendtoemployamorestrategic/agentiveanalyticalframework
andtreatdrinkingthroughthelensofpractice,politics,andgender.
Moreover,alcoholhascometobeseenasanimportantcomponent
of the political economy and a commodity centrally implicated in
strategiesofcolonialismandpostcolonialstrugglesoverstatepower
andhouseholdrelationsofauthority.
229
ANRV287-AN35-13 ARI 13August2006 7:29
INTRODUCTION Since that time, anthropological studies
ofalcoholhaveproliferated,andseveralnew
IthasbeennearlytwodecadessincetheARA
developmentsintheoreticalorientationhave
published an overview of the anthropology
bothguidedandgrownoutofthiswork.Tobe
of alcohol (Heath 1987a). The current re-
sure,alcoholhasremainedaminorityresearch
viewseekstocomplementthisexcellentear-
field within anthropology, and anthropolo-
lierstudybyselectivelyassessingsomemajor
gistshaveneverachievedmorethanaminor-
trendsinthefieldduringtheinterveningpe-
ityvoiceinthebroaderfieldofalcoholstudies,
riod.Thisincludeshighlightingarchaeolog-
norhavetheysharedmuchintheabundantre-
icalcontributionstothestudyofthehistory
searchfundingsupportingthisfield(seeHunt
of alcohol, something that has been largely
& Barker 2001). However, they have made
absent from works on alcohol by sociocul-
important contributions in highlighting the
tural anthropologists. Space limitations pre-
g cultural understanding of drinking practices
or cludeanyattemptatcomprehensivecoverage,
s. and patterns and in exposing the ethnocen-
w andseveralimportantthemes,suchasmedi-
evie cal anthropology’s engagement with alcohol tricassumptionsunderlyingmuchotherwork.
ualr studies, are left to other venues and more In this sense, both anthropologists and so-
n cial historians have played similarly subver-
arjournals.anal use only. cMthapeaArassbtshulHeadlyelhaeoattnfhada(lls1.c92o(8e0h.70oga1l.),)w.pBaoesinnentxepedtetoriu&etnicCninohgoiskaret1rv9aien9w6s-,, seciinvptelrienrneocslhefserodimnoratthhlcoeodhmooaxlriegsstinuosdfim(eBsoarrberyopwochwsa&elrlefRunlogdoinimsg-
m on 1991b,Bennett&Cook1996).
49. Downloaded fron 10/04/06. For pers fw2mocoh0groro0yimst/l0itomna)g.tgeeiyTxod,(chnhislceueaiiesdnndievofa,opelmslcepyouriunssbHipaenlnediecctatotahtihnvpheeepaa1lrdlcato9iothsa7hc,tc6ihohap,eln,l1icgdnt9orie8mnosso7sueucbnoim,hdaflee1pbd9ptwii9soaoya5lln---s, cdfitrieroisfccetMmunwlusotaicuvrshraeaalotilzoffaiontnnuhegtnehiadnrenoaardtpreiloosiinpelnordoaginalvylssicedueovubthoiatnoeltilcxwsetrmeodostfiaenraeserottnchhmdhenseoid.nwcToehsmhnoae---t
2006.35:229-2chael Dietler o ppethmrreiomeberlaagerremilnlyy.cnTaeisnhoaeinfsteivtnehiendewtivhteibdcmeeugnpaatlenuprraeaynst,hscetoehnleotmigcaooyllvryoerrwmeasieptsnhootncthidiane-l isdanetiiscaoconnontudaarlnscdewohadasoibsloo-aaurnsdt-epetrhaaratehlmiopeorlronegdwgyiilcdeloicetltseoipronarnietzuaefdrdoer,pcaoeinnoldoepbnlterhiaise-l.
hropol. by Mi ianngdcdreaantgioernooufsaslucobhstoalnacsea,caonldletchtievedcisactuergsoivrye Hweerneced,raewarnlybyantthherolopgoilcogoifc(aaltalneaaslytsiemspolficteitn)
nt polemic into a functionalist orientation that
A construction of drinking as a problem and
ev. then alcoholism as a disease (Blocker 1989, focused predominantly on the socially inte-
R grativeroleofdrinking.Thisisevidenteven
u. Harrison 1971, Heather & Robertson 1989,
n in works as late as Douglas (1987a). More
An McDonald1994c).However,bythe1980sthe
recent studies, however, have tended to give
orthodoxy of this alcoholism-and-addiction
equalemphasistoconflictandcontradiction
literaturewasbeingchallengedbyagrowing
and to treat drinking in a more agentive/
anthropologicalengagementwiththesubject,
strategicframeworkthroughthelensofprac-
which had begun in the 1960s, that focused
tice,politics,andgender.Moreover,thecrit-
insteadonnormaldrinkingandonalcoholas
icism that anthropologists had ignored the
anintegratedsocialartifactandculturallyval-
dysfunctionalaspectsofdrinking(e.g.,Room
ued good. Moreover, for the first time, an-
1984)hasbeencounteredbystudiesthatseek
thropologistswereundertakingethnographic
to define and understand culturally and his-
researchspecificallydesignedtofocusonal-
toricallyspecificformsofabnormalproblem
coholratherthansimplyreportingonitasa
drinking within particular normal drinking
secondary by-product of studies designed to
patterns (Bennett & Cook 1996, Colson &
meetothergoals.
230 Dietler
ANRV287-AN35-13 ARI 13August2006 7:29
Scudder1988,Eber2000,Heath2000,Huby cent,analyticalcategorythatlumpstogether
1994,Marshall1991,Spicer1997).Further- anastonishingvarietyofdisparatesubstances
more,sinceSinger’s(1986)critiqueofthefield on the sole basis of the common presence
forneglectingthebroaderpoliticaleconomy of a chemical named ethanol (C H OH)
2 5
in which drinking is embedded, alcohol in- thatproducespsychoactiveeffects.However,
creasingly has come to be recognized as an the chemical composition and properties of
important component of the political econ- ethanol were identified only in the twenti-
omyandasacommoditycentrallyimplicated ethcentury,and,asnotedabove,theconcept
in strategies of colonialism and postcolonial of alcohol as a collective term linking such
economic and political struggles over state thingsasbeer,wine,andwhiskeyisadiscur-
powerandinhouseholdrelationsofauthor- sive product of the nineteenth-century tem-
ity (e.g., Bryceson 2002a, Crush & Ambler perance movement (Blocker 1989, Harrison
g 1992, Dietler 1990, Jankowiak & Bradburd 1971, Roberts 1984). This is not necessarily
or
s. 2003).Socialhistoriansandsomeanthropol- a universally shared folk category, especially
w
vie ogists have also contributed to a crucial his- among peoples who had/have not been ex-
e
alr toricization of drinking that has been im- posed to the recent Euro-American demo-
u
n portantinovercomingsomeoftheproblems nization and medicalization of drinking that
n
arjournals.aal use only. iACnkohyleseroaenmn&tpionSncfguudn1dc9te9ir6o1,n9Ba8lai8srtr,oWinwtisellr&ipsr2Re0to0aot2im)o.nF1si9n(e9a.1lglay.,,, aiintraodlisusesttirwniaoltrshkoecdiciasolcnoiptredlixentreoa.nfEdavntehneemidneemsrogacinniedgtsiueosrfbctaahnpa--t
m on anothersignificantnewdevelopmentistheex- usethecategory,culturallyspecificpatternsof
aded froFor pers tpeanstsitohnrooufgrhestehaercehmeorngeanlccoehooflainsutostathineeddeaerp- ianteclfuastiaolnparnobdleexmcslufsoiornepciadne,mfoiorleoxgaimcapllseu,rcvreey-
49. Downlon 10/04/06. cDahiraeeetcoleelrnotg1i9flc9ao0lu,ernMisghialigannegmooe1fn9tw9w4o,irtVkhebdnyrcilna1kr9icn9hg4ae)(eoa.lngod.-, svthtauarditaiyteiosouwnnshg.eSnHtrraueintsieiananr(sc2hd0ei0dr1s)na,orfotercuoinnnasswtiadanercereto,wffoosuufncahd-
006.35:229-2hael Dietler o gHtriesatnyTsddhose,innswf2iert0aeh0svt1aiie,nswWpge(rceeiix.gagahl.m,etfBi2fno0rear0sty4m)2s.e0av0de3eraat,olDhoiifegthltelhirgeh&set tsvoiovrebEiletyethawrlaucindomoeh-lorbcalaaincsngededbreoibnfpeksvrusoe.grdaaurgcyeesod(rkfsrrtoeammrcahasynanfiomdolpdikrseabsyy-)
2c
ol. Mi thearchaeologicalexplorationofalcohol.The avarietyoftechniques(Bruman2000,Huetz
hropby intention is to suggest that alcohol research deLemps2001,Jenningsetal.2005).More-
nt represents a fruitful conjuncture of interests over, some varieties of alcoholic drinks have
A
v. and actually has the potential to serve as a substantial nutritional value, and they may
e
R mutually heuristic bridge across the subdis- form a significant component of the diet of
u.
n ciplinesofanthropology. many peoples (Platt 1955, 1964; Steinkraus
n
A
1995).Infact,itisperhapsmoreappropriate
to think of alcohol as a special class of food
ALCOHOLASEMBODIED
with psychoactive properties resulting from
MATERIALCULTURE
the application of alternative culinary tech-
One issue that demands immediate atten- niques:Thesamegraincanbecomeporridge,
tion is the nature of the category that de- bread,beer,orwhiskey,dependingsimplyon
fines the subject of this review. What, pre- the techniques applied to it. It is clear that
cisely,ismeantbyalcohol,andwhatarethe manypeoplesthinkoftheirtraditionalforms
implications of using this term? In the first of alcohol in this way. Despite the British
place,itshouldbeclearthatthetermdoesnot conception of alcohol as a kind of antifood
describeasingle,self-evidentobject.Rather, thatmarksadiscretesphereofconsumption
alcohol is a culturally specific, and quite re- (Douglas1975),onesharedbyancientGreeks
www.annualreviews.org • Alcohol 231
ANRV287-AN35-13 ARI 13August2006 7:29
(Murray 1990), many peoples consider it an ingoutofritualandpolitics,andinthecon-
especiallyvaluedformoffood. structionofsocialandeconomicrelations,in
Furthermore,similartootherfoods,alco- crucialways.Hence,alcohol,asaspecialclass
holisaformofwhatmaybecalledembodied ofembodiedmaterialculture,isaparticularly
materialculture(Dietler2001).Thatis,itisa salientexampleofwhatMaussreferredtoas
specialkindofmaterialculturecreatedspecif- a“totalsocialfact,”anditconstitutesanes-
icallytobedestroyed,butdestroyedthrough peciallyrevealingfocusofanalysisforanthro-
the transformative process of ingestion into pologistsandhistorians.
the human body. Hence, it has an unusually
close relationship to the person and to both
THE(PRE)HISTORYOF
theinculcationandthesymbolizationofcon-
ALCOHOL
cepts of identity and difference in the con-
g struction of the self. Moreover, because of Alcoholiscurrentlythemostwidelyusedhu-
or
s. theirpsychotropicproperties,alcoholicbev- man psychoactive agent around the world,
w
vie erages often have a heightened valuation in and this is a social fact with a deep history.
e
alr ritualcontexts,andtheyfrequentlyevenserve AtthetimeofEuropeancolonialexpansion,
u
n asacrucialindexicalsignofritual.AsoneTan- onlypartsofthePacificandNorthAmerica
n
arjournals.aal use only. ztpha.ne6ri1ae)n’s.iCnnoofonbrsemeeqar,uniettn’ssutlncyoc,ittnhacetrlicytousnauslm”umm(Wpetdiiloliitnsu2op0f,0“a2Il-f, ssweioeernmesqotufoiaclhkcaloyvheaodblioecpedtneridnwikintsh,taohnuodtseEinruedrgiogiopenenasonaussfowvreemlrl-s.
m on cohol is usually enveloped by a set of cul- Furthermore,althoughreligiousprohibitions
aded froFor pers ttuiornalalrluylecshaanrgdebdeltiheafsnthwaitthisoetvheenrmfoooredsemanod- awgiadienssptreaaldcoihnolthceoInssluammipctiMonidcdulerrEenatslty, tahries
49. Downlon 10/04/06. d2su0rsi0nt0aki;snWi(nDgilosuothgnela2sp0r10o95c8be7)s.bs;FoHufretaahltcehormh1o9ol8r7ec,ao,bn1es9uc8amu7psbe-, woanfadtshceweoirntladeiencsltoymanrecohstatfehrooelmocgaispceraeilcneisvaeindlyteinqtucheiitsyfo.rrSegboiemoener
006.35:229-2hael Dietler o ttlvaiieoobannolsrrt,eheqstrhpouieuisrcgeihadslolcbymoonaitnthiintniamuogaarflticermuepdlatlitueaerlnreaiicalstlhaiicncnaduglltlcpuiunrrolkeidnaugarrecey--s (ageMnsinsdecn(Gtachloe’ekv).oewhroonlr,deotraailglc.ion1ha9ol9lly5i,smMeevaiecnnhineoglfeaAtpraaol.bwi1cd9e9or3rei)d-,
2c
ol. Mi betweenthedomesticandpoliticaleconomy. The investigation of the early history of
hropby Thesefeaturesalsoassurethattheconsump- alcoholbyarchaeologistsandancienthistori-
nt tionofembodiedmaterialcultureconstitutes anshasdevelopedgreatlyinrecentyears.That
A
v. aprimearenaforthenegotiation,projection, isnottosaythatearlierscholarsignoredal-
e
R and contestation of power, or what may be coholinantiquity(e.g.,seeBraidwoodetal.
u.
n calledcommensalpolitics(Dietler1996). 1953).Butwhatdistinguishesrecentworkisa
n
A
Inbrief,alcoholicdrinksarenotsimplyre- moresystematic,concertedeffortbothtode-
ducibletoauniformchemicalsubstancewith velopthetheoreticalunderstandingofdrink-
physiologicaleffects.Theyconstituteaform ing as a social practice (e.g., Dietler 1990,
of material culture subject to almost unlim- 2001; Murray 1995; Poux 2004) and to im-
itedpossibilitiesforvariationintermsofin- prove techniques for detecting alcohol pro-
gredients,techniquesofpreparation,patterns ductionandconsumptioninthearchaeolog-
ofassociationandexclusion,modesofserving ical record (e.g., Biers & McGovern 1990,
andconsumption,aestheticandmoralevalua- Michel et al. 1993). Part of this effort has
tions,expectedbehaviorwhendrinking,styles alsoinvolvedtheethnoarchaeologicalinvesti-
ofinebriation,andsoforth.Theyformaver- gationofalcohol,inwhichresearchersunder-
satile and highly charged symbolic medium takeethnographicstudiesthatpaysystematic
andsocialtoolthatareoperativeintheplay- attentiontothematerialdimensionofalcohol
232 Dietler
ANRV287-AN35-13 ARI 13August2006 7:29
initssocialcontextasawayofaidingarchae- Anatolia by the third millennium b.c.e., and
ologicalinterpretation(Arthur2003;Bowser thisdemonstratesboththatwinewasanob-
2003;Dietler&Herbich2001,2006). jectoftradefromanearlydateandthatitwas
Archaeologistshaveseveralpotentiallines generallyacostlygoodconsumedonlybyelite
of evidence to explore the production and strata of these societies, whereas the lower
consumption of alcohol in the past, and the classes drank beer (Joffe 1998, McGovern
best results come from triangulating multi- etal.1995,Milano1994,Pollock2003).
ple strands of data. These strands include Wine had also spread to beer-drinking
theexcavatedmaterial-culturetracesofcon- Egyptbythethirdmillenniumb.c.e.,despite
sumption, production, and trading practices the absence of native wild grapes in Egypt.
(e.g., brewing, drinking, serving, and trans- TheevidenceforalcoholinancientEgyptis
portvessels;feastingritualsitesanddomestic particularly rich: It includes tomb paintings
g kitchens; breweries and wineries; and ship- and models illustrating the complete wine-
or
s. wrecks laden with wine amphorae), icono- makingandbeer-makingprocesses.Theevi-
w
vie graphicandtextualrepresentationsofdrink- dencealsoshowsthatwinewas,again,present
e
alr ing,modelsandtestimplicationsderivedfrom as an important elite drink and that it had
u
n experimentalandethnographicresearch,and importantreligiousroles(James1995,Lesko
n
arjournals.aal use only. tsherevAcehrdcehimnaieaconamlctiereatnrctiecvseotsefscaehllcsn.oihqouleiscbfeovreraangaelsyzpirneg- 1aat9ci9oo5mn,ipPnloeaxonlc1aib9ee9nl5tin)E.gWgsyypisntteebmjyarwthsaedseNamlreeowandKsytriinantgeodptohemar-t.
m on chemical residues from ancient vessels have Writing on the shoulders of jars and stamps
aded froFor pers speleenofrdeemcaardkeasb,alendprthoegsreestsecohvneirqutheeshpaavsetbceoeun- othnecrleagyisoena,ltshinedviicnaetyeadrdth,ethyeevairnotnfethr,eavnidnteavgeen,
49. Downlon 10/04/06. ihpnrosoltdriuunmctNeionentoalolitfihnaictfheCermhreiencneatn,etdddebemetevocentrsiatogrnaetoionffgarlictchoee-, talahnreddqwruihnaeklaittoybfoethferet,hmheoawwssieenvsee,ra(,Lnrdeemstkhaoeinr1ee9d9is5the).eviBpdaoerpnleucye-
006.35:229-2hael Dietler o hlsmeoonirnlnloeeiynuf,mnthaiunebmd.ccef.berr.eu.caiT.tle-h.abitsashsebaeatedrvhlayealrscaaobsgheetoehwnleaopssfretetvhhseeeenrptvshreeecdmcouininrld--- fb1o9rre9Iwi3nt)se.Erpyuroreodxpuceacv,tiacotrneeddoinbatlaeHleavrieigdreaeskncocanelepf,oosrluisaclhc(Goahseoltlhleiecr
2c
ol. Mi side sealed bronze vessels of the Shang and beverages, especially drinking vessels in fu-
hropby Western Zhou dynasties (McGovern et al. nerary contexts, dates back to at least the
nt 2004). The earliest chemical traces of alco- Neolithic,althoughitisprobablethatforms
A
v. hol found elsewhere date to the early sixth of alcohol such as fermented honey (mead)
e
R millenniumb.c.e.andcomefromtheMiddle may have existed even earlier (Dietler 1990,
u.
n EastandTranscaucasia.Theoldestresiduesof 1996;Sherratt1991;Vencl1994).Bothgrain
n
A
grapewinecomefromGeorgia,andresidues beers and mead are attested during the Iron
ofbothwineandbarleybeerhavebeenfound Age(firstmillenniumb.c.e.)throughhistori-
in Iranian ceramics dating a few centuries caltexts,chemicalresidues,andthetracesof
later(McGovern2003,Micheletal.1993),al- apossiblebreweryinGermany(Arnold1999,
thoughtheoriginofthesebeveragesisproba- Dietler 1990, 1999, Stika 1996). Wine was
blyevenolder.Ithasevenbeensuggestedthat alsointroducedtoEarlyBronzeAgeGreece
the desire for beer may have been responsi- inthethirdmillenniumb.c.e.andservedasan
blefortheoriginaldomesticationofcerealsin elitebeverageinMinoanandMycenaeancon-
theeighthmillenniumb.c.e.(Braidwoodetal. texts (Hamilakis 1999; Wright 1995, 2004).
1953,Katz&Voigt1986).Inanycase,archae- It subsequently spread to Italy with Greek
ological evidence of wine and beer drinking colonization during the eighth and seventh
is widespread in Mesopotamia, Assyria, and centuries b.c.e. Unlike its role in other
www.annualreviews.org • Alcohol 233
ANRV287-AN35-13 ARI 13August2006 7:29
societies, wine eventually replaced beer and turies,althoughsomerecreationalconsump-
otherdrinksaltogetheramongGreeks(except tion seems to have begun as early as the fif-
Spartans), Etruscans, and Romans of all so- teenth century, especially in Germany. Dur-
cialclasses(Murray1990,Murray&Tecusan ing the sixteenth century, production began
1995,Tchernia1986,Tchernia&Brun1999). to shift from apothecaries and monasteries
Meanwhile,Phoeniciancolonistscarriedthe to merchants and commercial distillers. By
practice of making wine from the Levant to the seventeenth century, consumption was
CarthageandtheircoloniesinsouthernSpain widespread and production increased dra-
during the eighth century b.c.e. (Greene matically,especiallyoncecheapersugar-and
1995).By700b.c.e.,nativeIberiansocietiesin grain-basedalcoholsbegantobeproducedin
Spain(wherebeerwastheindigenousdrink) northernEurope(Braudel1979,pp.241–49;
begantomaketheirownwineandtotradeitin Forbes1970;Matthee1995).
g amphoraemodeledafterthePhoeniciantype Little archaeological research has been
or
s. (Gue´rin&Go´mezBellard1999).Francewas conductedonancientalcoholinAfricaoutside
w
vie thelastregionintheMediterraneantobegin ofDynasticEgypt,althoughEdwards(1996)
e
alr consuming wine. The introduction of wine has identified credible evidence for the rit-
u
n to this region was the result of an Etruscan ual importance of sorghum beer in Kushite
n
arjournals.aal use only. wtcuoirlnyoenbtyr.acod.fee.Mtahanasdtsablteihagea(mnfooinudnethdrneinlMgataeorfsseetvihlelene)tGhincreeaenpk-- sHimoocmiweetenyvseferr,roamsnugbte-hSoeafhlianatdreaignfiernAsotfrumisciaalllcedonohneoisulimhcabvbee.vcea.ren-.
m on proximately 600 b.c.e., which produced the agesmadefromvariouscereals,bananas,palm
aded froFor pers fi19rs9t0w).iBneyitnheFrseancocned(Btoerfiturcstchcien1t9u9r2ie,sDbi.ect.lee.r, simapp,ohrotnanety,paanrdtooftAhefrriicnagnrceudliteunrtesstehvaetrwywerheearne
49. Downlon 10/04/06. td6h5reammMiallteiidociantlelayrm,rapnshueocarhnaewtohinfaeRtotramandaenewhstaiindmeaewtxepedaren5dim5ed–- a(oHtfctuhoeentzstiiddmeereLaboelfmeEpausnrt2oiq0p0ue1iat)ny.iTannhmdesoAesrtaaraberiecparsco,obanatfbaacclytt
006.35:229-2hael Dietler o p(chPeoanodrttueuxbdrye2icn0cot0.moe4.,,eFFTraracnahncemecrenao,jivoaneror1w9aw8pai6neR)er.-ioopBmdryoaodntfhupaecriconseevgncitnourcnreedy-, atp1ht9ater7etg5stoe,eofpdgparb.ra2yop0yah–ane2lr1efAu)le.nlv-AeBesrnaaitknrhyr-micrtieootnsuattalucolrotiyhnheorGrelifpchelardaencrniaencs(k,ePsthbaanyes
2c
ol. Mi gion that was even exporting wine back techniqueofdistillingalcoholisaby-product
hropby to Rome (Amouretti & Brun 1993, Brun of European colonialism and dates only to
nt 2003). the late nineteenth century in most parts of
A
v. Theoriginsofalcoholdistillationarestill Africa. However, indigenous materials were
e
R somewhatobscure.GreeksinAlexandriahad quickly adapted to make distillation devices
u.
n already developed the distillation of plant and produce local varieties of distilled spir-
n
A
essencesformedicinalpurposesbythefourth its in many areas (Dietler & Herbich 2006,
century c.e. The technique was further de- HuetzdeLemps2001,Tanzarn2002,Willis
veloped by Arab chemists for the extraction 2002).
of essential oils for perfumes, and it prob- In India, textual evidence demonstrates
ably was passed back to Europe during the that barley and rice beers extend back to
medievalperiod,perhapsthroughSpain.The at least the Vedic period (second millen-
distillationofalcoholfromwineseemstohave nium b.c.e.), and alcoholic beverages made
emerged in the medical schools of Salerno from a variety of grasses, fruits, and other
and/or Montpellier during the twelfth cen- substances are also attested in ancient texts
tury (although see Allchin 1979). Distilled (Prakash 1961). On the basis of Sanskrit
alcohol remained primarily for medicinal textsandpossiblesmallpotterystills,Allchin
usesuntilthesixteenthandseventeenthcen- (1979) has even claimed that the process
234 Dietler
ANRV287-AN35-13 ARI 13August2006 7:29
of alcohol distillation may have been in- ALCOHOL,IDENTITY,AND
ventedinIndiaandPakistanatapproximately GENDER
500 b.c.e., although the evidence for this is
Theintegrativeroleofalcoholinmaintaining
ambiguous.
social cohesion and drinking as a construc-
TheNewWorldalsohasarangeoftradi-
tivesocialactarethemesstressedbymostan-
tionalalcoholicdrinksmadefromverydiffer-
thropologistswhohavestudiedalcoholsince
entingredients:principallymaizeandagave,
the1960s,andtheseneedlittlefurthercom-
but many other kinds of roots, fruits, and
menthere(seeDouglas1987b;Heath1987a,
stalksaswell(Bruman2000).IntheAmericas,
1987b, 2000). Another longstanding theme
lessresearchhasbeenconductedonidentify-
hasbeenthewayinwhichdrinkingservesto
ing the earliest traces of these drinks. How-
marksocialcategories,boundaries,andiden-
ever,itisclearthatmaize-basedchichawasan
tity. However, what distinguishes more re-
g importantelementoffeastingandstatepoli-
or cent work is that drinking patterns are not
s. ticsintheIncaempireandinseveralearlier
w viewedsimplyasreflectionsofsocialorgani-
ualrevie eatxpleaansstiotnhaertyhpirodlitcieenstoufrySobu.ct.he.A(mBrearyic2a0f0ro3mb, ztuartieo(nin,mthaenisftersutcattuiornalsisotfmdeoedpec),ongnoritiavsessimtrupcle-
n Cook&Glowacki2003,Goldstein2003,Lau
arjournals.anal use only. 2coh0fi0cfae2a,msMtainyogohraaenved19bs8te9aet,nuMsadosirifrgfiensri1efin9c7tain9a)tt.ioiMmnpoalrseemeoaverenlryt, epipdxreeparncfrotetiirsctmsyeioseandtrhs,eraooanfcudtcgiutvhrleatlwunyrshafciolcorhindmseptenredutr.isctoItynen,dabo,lutheatmnerrdabtwohgodreorireduadsps,,
m on as the ninth century b.c.e. (Clark & Blake
49. Downloaded fron 10/04/06. For pers 1stoehia9rrarie9gln4yfino)g.ararslaIatidtlnchoho)emahmssoeiaesxlytvtmihehcanaamdtvibeeoilefnlbreeeonnaemnnnadirusrgswempuserpeeebdota.ncsdtt.sheaioba.lfktl(mesSt(fhmaroeiarzatelhdtlheeeayer-s dcssoimeoorfncinsanistsgarektliarinrnotueeefgcdgltaciiiwtrcosieaonosalnrletyolisednfhnc,girtopahaarsfsetncaiasnhniogaddsclieoliigeanannlnlteigiwhfi’msieconpaaprglnglardiitactn,g.efeTbomwdorhaictwtithehsiocitiinrhnnsleedtntthmhhosaeeeetf
2006.35:229-2chael Dietler o &adthlrsaiBontlkdawkrcaaeasnl2lkea0ddm0db3aia)ti.lizcoIehnne´baCmelleeyarnd,steaprasfikrlwoeAmdemllwhearoistinchaae,fyhetaahrlnmeludeMcnbinataeoyrdka- hrt&heacrsdoe,nepintoGelfodaagicrtities,ntdtesevan2ond0lude0md1h,etisosDtoodonrouidamgnrliiasnnsa(ket1ie.n9gg8a.,7bndayue,bmGoGbteahefrroainnuoe--f
hropol. by Mi gFeenrms(eCnoteed19a9g4av,eppfo.1rm34e,d16th6e;LbeaCseofuonrtt2h0e0a1l)-. M20a0d1i,aWnoiuls1o9n9220,0M5caD).onald1994b,Scholliers
nt cohol of choice (pulque) of the Aztec state
A This kind of identity construction and
ev. (Smith et al. 2003). This drink presumably markingthroughdrinkingoccursalongava-
R hadagreaterantiquityaswell,althoughclear
u. rietyofsocialcategoryandboundarydistinc-
n evidenceislacking.Distilledalcoholandthe
An tions, including age, gender, class, family or
production of wine from grapes in the New
lineage, occupation, ethnicity, and religion
WorldareproductsoftheSpanishconquest
(e.g., Martin 2001, Mars 1987, McDonald
(Bruman2000,Rice1996).
1994a). Regional, national, and cosmopoli-
Recent archaeological and historical re-
tanidentitiesalsofrequentlyinvolvedrinking
searchofthiskindhassucceededinenriching
practices(e.g.,Guy2001,Hall2005,Wilson
ourunderstandingofthedeepantiquityand
2005b).Therelationshipbetweenalcoholand
nearubiquityofalcoholonaworldwidescale,
identity can also shift over time, as, for ex-
aswellasilluminatingthesocial,political,and
ample, in contexts of increasing commoditi-
economicrolesofalcoholinancientsocieties.
zation in which traditional associations with
Theselatterinsightsarediscussedbelowwith
age/seniorityandcommunitymaybeoverrid-
related contributions from sociocultural an-
denbynewassociationswithclassdistinctions
thropologistsandsocialhistorians.
www.annualreviews.org • Alcohol 235
ANRV287-AN35-13 ARI 13August2006 7:29
(Suggs 1996). In all these cases, drinking ancient Greek symposion to the Irish pub
serves simultaneously to construct both a (Driessen 1992, Murray 1990, Peace 1992,
sense of communal identity for those drink- Suggs1996).Inmanysocieties,womenmay
ingtogetherorsharingtastesandasenseof be expected to drink less than men (or to
differenceandboundariesfromothers. abstain completely), to behave differently
It is not only types of alcohol that serve from men when drinking or intoxicated, to
as indexical signs of identity. Drinking is a preferdifferentkindsofalcoholthanmen,or
learnedtechniqueducorps,inthesenseofMauss todrinkindifferentplacesthanmen(Dietler
(1936), and all aspects are relevant in em- & Herbich 2006, Eber 2000, Hendry 1994,
bodying and discerning identity and differ- Huby 1994, Macdonald 1994, Suggs 1996).
ence. Hence, in addition to such qualitative Male and female practices may also vary
distinctions (i.e., aesthetic dispositions peo- by class within the same society (Gonza´lez
g pledevelopaboutpreferredkindsofalcohol, Turmo 2001). These features are not static
or
s. drinking paraphernalia, and styles of drink- butchangeinresponsetoavarietyoffactors,
w
vie ingandtheculturalcapitalderivedfromem- includingtheuseofdrinkingasaformofresis-
e
alr bodiedknowledgeaboutproperconsumption tancetomaleauthority(Papagaroufali1992)
u
n practices), various other symbolic diacritica and the commoditization of alcohol (Suggs
n
arjournals.aal use only. cstitocrneusvc.etirTogneheionsfeciodinmecnpltuliedtxyepttehhrremouufogtalhltoidowrniinsngikn:int(hgae)pcsropanca--- 1is99tAh6an).to,tahterlegaesntdinerecdondtiemxtesnosifonnoonfinddriunsktriniagl
m on tialdistinctions(i.e.,segregationintoseparate production,womenhaveoftenbeenthepri-
aded froFor pers dtirailnpkoinsigtiopnlaicnegsoofrgorothueprssotrruinctduivreiddudailfsfwerheinle- msuamryedsubpypmlieerns.oSfoamlceorheosleparrcehdeormsihnaavnetvlyiecwoend-
49. Downlon 10/04/06. d(osrruincthhkeianstgitmhtoeingogertdhoeefrrd)o,rfi(nsbe)kritvneignmgepvooerrnacltosdn),issu(tcim)ncpqttuiioaonnn-s, tlbahebisoovraes(raetnxlypdlromeictaoalgteinodinze,epadelntahndodeunvgcahelufoeendm,iaatl)nedmbwareyowmailnesnog
006.35:229-2hael Dietler o toiboifotraddatirlilviydneikcsdtociimnostcnpitnsiouocrmtntimsoen(deisn.oet(.r,idnsdueitrrfhfivneeergder)nae,nclaaedntsidvainfe(tdeea)rxmbpdoeerhucintanekvtd--s mvnmiidaeshyuniasdnaleglsrtroiaevtfleuahstcoiofosrnnpossimitdwaletiihrtthayebiotrlherceeicnngattomerdagasloir(nrMoitclaeaainlrincianhntghd1ec9ino9fumd8ri)---.
2c
ol. Mi ing,includingsuchthingsaspermissiblesigns Furthermore,withthecommoditizationofal-
hropby ofintoxicationorexpectedmodesofdrunken cohol,womenhavefrequentlybenefitedfrom
nt comportment and serving or being served). their role as brewers by developing a new
A
v. Suchdistinctionsarenotonlypartofanem- sourceofeconomicpowerandindependence
e
R bodiedBourdieueanhabitus,buttheycanbe (seebelow).
u.
n consciously manipulated on a microscale to Alcoholhasalsoplayedafrequentrolein
n
A
makestatementsaboutrelativestatusorsen- the distinction of class boundaries and the
timentsofinclusionandexclusionatvarious embodimentofclassidentitiesthroughboth
levels.Feastsandotherkindsofdrinkingrit- thedevelopmentoftastesfordifferenttypes
ualscanbeanespeciallypowerfultheaterfor of alcohol and styles of drinking, and some-
such politically charged symbolic assertions times the imposition of sumptuary laws re-
andcontestations(Dietler&Hayden2001). strictingaccesstosymbolicallychargeddrinks
Gender is perhaps the most widespread or drinking paraphernalia. In contemporary
dimensionofidentityinwhichalcoholplays Africa, for example, factory-brewed bottled
an obvious role (Gefou-Madianou 1992, beerandtraditionalfermentscommonlydis-
McDonald1994b).Masculinityisfrequently tinguish the consumption patterns of urban
defined around the capacity to drink within workersandprovincialsalariedprofessionals
associations of male drinkers, from the on the one hand, and rural agriculturalists
236 Dietler
ANRV287-AN35-13 ARI 13August2006 7:29
on the other, whereas imported distilled ity (e.g., in small beer drinks in the home),
liquorisconsumedexclusivelybyurbanelites thelavishhostingofcommunityceremonies,
(e.g., Colson & Scudder 1988, Diduk 1993, or the overtly agonistic mounting of com-
Partanen 1991). These specific distinctions petitivefeasts(e.g.,Dietler&Herbich2006,
representapostcolonialshiftinAfricanpat- Rehfisch1987).Hostingdrinkingfeastsmay
terns,butthisisnotanewphenomenon.As alsobeessentialforclimbingthesocialhier-
notedabove,thedistinctionbetweenwineand archybyacquiringformaltitlesorritualposi-
beer was a common class marker in ancient tions,wheretheseexist(e.g.,Arthur2003,de
MesopotamiaandEgypt,anddiacriticalstyles Garine1996).
of drinking also characterized, for example, Insocietieswithformalcentralizedleader-
some European Iron Age societies (Arnold shiproles,thegenerouspublicprovisionofal-
1999;Dietler1990,1999).Inothercontexts, coholonaregularbasisfrequentlyisseenasa
g distinctions between wine and beer, for in- dutyofthepersonwhoperformsthatrole,asit
or
s. stance,maybeassociatedmorewithregional symbolically institutionalizes a patron-client
w
vie identitythanclass(e.g.,Hall2005),although relationship.Failuretolavishlydispensealco-
e
alr classmaybemarkedbyotheraspectsofdrink- holwillresultinlossofauthority,andpolitical
u
n ingpractices. challenges may be orchestrated through the
n
arjournals.aal use only. ALCOHOLANDPOLITICS mloincolusaunrgctihensgsleeoacdfaenrrivsimaflopdrorsiaengkcriioncnugslitfdueerarasaltsbs.lueTrdpheliumsspaanunbdd-s
m on Alcoholhaslongbeenaprimepoliticaltool. brewinglabor(Jennings2005),anditisone
aded froFor pers Iittsswimidpesoprrtaenadceasisnoctihatisiodnowmitahinhoisspritealalitteydantdo otifotnhbeemtwaeinenrepaoslointiscaolfpteonwceirteadndfoproalycgoynnnyeicn-
49. Downlon 10/04/06. raaincttudsafalo,saranmdsootocfiiaetlsmsmbtaaotrdukiseeard.saTmshaotecerireailalalyrecvuanllutuuemrdeegrtoohouadst Afarnferdqicutaoen(ctsoleyrevhe´Daevileeatblaeorrri2gfr0ho0tm1t)o.sutSbruijbceuhcttseletiahndaetarlssceorahvlseoosl
006.35:229-2hael Dietler o pcuthralaootthpriisootnylbity(oiscwfesephaoiDncwdhieematrllecaarocnrh1doo9stl9thri0esa,tdc2eeog0pni0els1ost;ryouWefcdttihiilonleinstmh2oea0fn0mai2pui)---. ppttoaralotieitvoayi.snseHio(stnoehweeoebfbvebueleorre,dwrce)oin.nrRvocee´ofsemseluaapcrbechonhroseaarbtsllisihoognaarvtefoeoqroruybpirshaeerosrtsvitpcheiide--
2c
ol. Mi However,especiallyinthecontextofritualsof thiskindofpoliticalroleforalcoholincases
hropby publicconsumption(feasts),alcoholhasbeen rangingfrompettychiefsandroyaltyinAfrica
nt equallycrucialtotheoperationofpoliticsatall (e.g.,Akyeampong1996,Crush1992,Willis
A
v. scales:fromsocietieswithoutformalpolitical 2002) to the Inca imperial state. So impor-
e
R rolesorinstitutions,tosocietieswithcentral- tantwasalcoholtotheoperationoftheInca
u.
n izedchieflyauthority,toimperialstates(Bray statethatitmaintainedvaststorehousesand
n
A
2003a,Dietler&Hayden2001). compounds of female brewers specifically to
In contexts where the exercise of power produce chicha for large consumption events
is not vested in formal political institutions (Moore1989,Morris1979).
or roles, the manipulation of drinking fre-
quently serves as a significant avenue to the
ALCOHOL,POLITICAL
creationofprestigeandsocialcapitalthatare
ECONOMY,ANDCOLONIALISM
fundamental to the conditions of possibility
forleadershipininfluencinggroupdecisions Alcoholhasalsobeenanobjectofmajoreco-
and actions. The production of this kind of nomic importance and a significant compo-
power may occur in the context of the sub- nent of the political economy in a wide va-
tle small-scale engineering of social indebt- riety of contexts. It has been a particularly
ednessthroughthemanipulationofhospital- prominentfactorincolonialsituations,both
www.annualreviews.org • Alcohol 237
ANRV287-AN35-13 ARI 13August2006 7:29
ancientandmodern(Dietler1990,Jankowiak Brun1993,Brun2003,Rice1996).AsWillis
&Bradburd2003,Pan1975).Tounderstand (2002, p. 237) further observed in regard
therolesofalcoholinthisdomain,itisneces- to distilled alcohol, “when compared with
sarytofirstbrieflyconsiderthepropertiesof informal-sectorferments,spiritshaveencour-
alcoholasaneconomicgood. agedmorecomplexeconomiclinkagesanda
Mosttraditionalformsofalcoholaremade tendencytomoreovertlycommercializedla-
for immediate consumption: They will spoil bor relations within production.” But, as he
within a few days of fermentation. This is alsoobserved,distillationincontextssuchas
true for most forms of grain beer before theAfricancountrysidehasremainedasmall-
the addition of hops as a preservative (a scaleaffair,oftenasacomplementtobrewing.
European invention of the ninth century) Itsolvestheproblemoflocalizedoversupply
and for most other fruit-, sap-, or starch- forsellers,as,ratherthanspoiling,excessalco-
g basedalcoholsbeforetheinventionofdistil- holcanbekeptforsaleatanothertime(Willis
or
s. lation(Bruman2000,HuetzdeLemps2001, 2002,p.237).Theelevatedpsychoactiveef-
w
vie Jenningsetal.2005).Themajorancientex- fectsowingtoamuchhigheralcoholcontent
e
alr ceptioniswine,whichcouldbepreservedin havealsobeenanobvioussourceofattraction.
u
n amphorae for years. Modern exceptions in- Traditional forms of alcohol have tended
n
arjournals.aal use only. csoelfuqdauelecndotihlsyot,illmlecdoosustpldtirraintdsoiattinobdneahlotripnapddeeigddebnoeoveuerssr.fCgorroemna-st tmoofeacsgtoirncicsetuciltotunutroeamlayrme,wsaoijutohrrcaecsosimgdnepviofionctaeendntttpoorfbotrpheowertidinoogn-.
m on distancesorstockpiled:Productionandcon- Where quantitative measures have been at-
aded froFor pers srualmlyptpioronxiwmeartee.usTuahlelysespdartiinakllsy nanecdestesimtapteod- theomldpst,edit iins cslmeaarllhthoaldte1r5a%nd–3p0e%asa(nantdhoouftseen-
49. Downlon 10/04/06. csoiofgnnltiirmfiociltaenodtfcavoanllausruegmeapsltatiboroandreefvoegrnoctoe,dafsno.drMthhooesryteiownvgeerrea, cstiuoopnnpsoildyfeairslaccboolhymomlm(odonerelGy)adorefidntiecha1et9e9hd6ot,uoDsetihheeotllepdrro2gd0ru0aic1n-,
006.35:229-2hael Dietler o tuhahcoedtlssdoemtahdgearrstiatnriwcikaesnarecwbteaiavrsiceeto,yum.asnWmudaoilpnlnyreopmd(aaurasctdteowiofifntrthhowemdahsispootriuflotlseedend-- Jol(a1evrn9eg8nre,1int)qhgnuissoa2tnpe0rtd0iot5diteh,usPacttlo,aiofdttnuf1ruai9eln6slgo.4,oFfrSnoeaerquwuleee1xnea9tkm8ly1ipn)rl.eeMM,quaSoniarrgeeua-sl
2c
ol. Mi liquor), on the other hand, could be accu- (aMossitownof7000inhabitants),fivebeer
hropby mulated for years and traded over vast dis- feasts held in one ward required 1400 kg of
nt tances. It had a stronger potential to be- wood for brewing and cooking for one of
A
v. come a circulating commodity—that is, a these feasts alone, in addition to 1900 kg
e
R goodproducedforexchangeratherthanim- ofredsorghumrequiredforbeer.Otherfig-
u.
n mediate consumption in a social event (see uresfromdifferentpartsofAfricaindicatethat
n
A
Dietler1990).Thebriefwindowofconsump- 10%–50%offuelwoodconsumptionisacom-
tionformosttraditionalalcoholicbeverages monfigureforbrewing(McCall2002).
is one reason that ancient breweries have Alcoholproductionofthistypeisusually
beenrelativelyrarearchaeologicalfinds,and alabor-intensiveprocessandoneperformed
thosethathavebeenidentified,forexample, predominantlybywomen.However,alcohol
in Egypt and South America (Geller 1993, alsoperformsacrucialroleinmaintainingin-
Moore1989),arefacilitiesforstate-sponsored terhousehold flows of labor through its use
feasting at an adjacent location rather than inworkfeasts(seeDietler&Herbich2001).
for trade. Wineries, on the other hand, as Theworkfeastisthemost-commonpractice
specialized commodity-production facilities bywhichlargecollective-laborprojectshave
separatedfromconsumptionsites,havebeen beenmobilizedbeforetheadventofcapitalist
far more commonly detected (Amouretti & wagelabor:Itisaneventinwhichagroupof
238 Dietler