Access to History. Politics, Presidency and Society in the USA 1968-2001

241 Pages·2011·3.043 MB·English

by  Vivienne Sanders

access to history
Politics, Presidency and
Society in the USA
1968–2001
Vivienne Sanders
PART OF HACHETTE LIVRE UK
This high-quality material is endorsed by Edexcel and has been through a rigorous quality assurance
programme to ensure that it is a suitable companion to the specification for both learners and teachers.
This does not mean that its contents will be used verbatim when setting examinations nor is it to be read as
being the official specification – a copy of which is available at www.edexcel.org.uk.
Study guides revised and updated, 2008, by Angela Leonard (Edexcel).
The Publishers would like to thank the following for permission to reproduce
copyright illustrations:AP Photo/PA Photo, page 182; Associated Press, pages 165,
168, 169, 203, 216, 218, 220; © Bettman/CORBIS, pages 6, 16, 37, 51, 97, 98;
© Corbis, pages 22, 44, 56; FilmMagic, page 219; George Bush Presidential Library
and Museum, page 148 (bottom); Getty Images, pages 41, 121; © David Hume
Kennerly/Gerald R. Ford Library/Corbis, page 67; © Wally McNamee/CORBIS,
pages 78, 139, 159; © The New Yorker Collection 2004 Mick Stevens from
cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved, page 209 (top); © Reuters/CORBIS, page 175;
© Soqui Ted/CORBIS SYGMA, page 212; Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images,
pages 4, 12, 63, 134, 148 (top).
The Publishers would like to acknowledge use of the following extracts:Oxford
University Press Inc, USA for an extract from Restless Giant: The United States from
Watergate to Bush Vs. Goreby James T. Patterson, 2005.
Every effort has been made to trace all copyright holders, but if any have been
inadvertently overlooked the Publishers will be pleased to make the necessary
arrangements at the first opportunity.
Although every effort has been made to ensure that website addresses are correct
at time of going to press, Hodder Education cannot be held responsible for the
content of any website mentioned in this book. It is sometimes possible to find a
relocated web page by typing in the address of the home page for a website in the
URL window of your browser.
Hachette Livre UK’s policy is to use papers that are natural, renewable and
recyclable products and made from wood grown in sustainable forests. The
logging and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the
environmental regulations of the country of origin.
Orders: please contact Bookpoint Ltd, 130 Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4SB.
Telephone: [phone]. Fax: [phone]. Lines are open
9.00–5.00, Monday to Saturday, with a 24-hour message answering service.
Visit our website at www.hoddereducation.co.uk
© Vivienne Sanders 2008
First published in 2008 by
Hodder Education,
Part of Hachette Livre UK
338 Euston Road
London NW1 3BH
Impression number 5 4 3 2 1
Year 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008
All rights reserved. Apart from any use permitted under UK copyright law, no part
of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or held within
any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from
the publisher or under licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited.
Further details of such licences (for reprographic reproduction) may be obtained
from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street,
London EC1N 8TS.
Cover photo © Wally McNamee/Corbis
Typeset in 10/12pt Baskerville by Gray Publishing, Tunbridge Wells, Kent
Printed in Malta
A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library.

ISBN: 978 0340 965 986
Some figures in the printed version of this book are not available for inclusion in the eBook for copyright reasons.
Contents
Dedication v
Chapter 1 The State of the Union in 1968 1
1 The Significance of 1968 1
2 The Tet Offensive and the Vietnam War (January–February 1968) 2
3 Martin Luther King and Black Americans, April 1968 3
4 Bobby Kennedy and America’s Poor, May–June 1968 5
5 The Democratic National Convention in Chicago and Students, August 1968 9
6 The Miss America Pageant and Women, September 1968 13
7 The November 1968 Presidential Election and Middle America 15
Chapter 2 President Nixon 1969–74 20
1 Richard Nixon’s Background 21
2 Nixon’s Election as President in 1968 25
3 Getting Re-elected in 1972 34
4 The Watergate Scandal 47
5 The Results and Significance of Watergate 57
Study Guide 65
Chapter 3 Presidents Ford (1974–7) and Carter (1977–81) 66
1 Gerald Ford – Background 66
2 Gerald Ford – The Half-a-Term President 69
3 Jimmy Carter – Background 77
4 Why did President Carter Fail to Get Re-elected? 80
5 The New Right 93
Study Guide 95
Chapter 4 President Reagan 1981–9 96
1 Preparation for the Presidency 96
2 The ‘Imperilled Presidency’? 104
3 Reagan’s First Term: Aims, Methods and Achievements 106
4 Reagan’s Re-election in 1984 113
5 Reagan’s Second Term 114
6 An ‘Amiable Dunce’? 123
7 The Reagan Legacy 126
Study Guide 137
iv | Contents
Chapter 5 President George H.W. Bush 1989–93 138
1 Background 138
2 Comparing Bush with Reagan 141
3 ‘The Vision Thing’ – Education and the Environment 143
4 Bush vs Congress 145
5 Social Themes: The New Right, The Supreme Court, Sex, Drugs and Race 146
6 Foreign Policy 150
7 The 1992 Election 152
8 Bush – The Verdict 155
9 American Society in the 1980s 156
Study Guide 157
Chapter 6 President Clinton 1993–2001 158
1 Bill Clinton – Background 159
2 The 1992 Presidential Election 161
3 President Clinton’s First Term 163
4 Republican Opposition and Extremism 171
5 The 1996 Presidential Election 180
6 The Monica Lewinsky Affair 181
7 Foreign Policy 188
8 Clinton’s Presidency – Conclusions 189
Study Guide 195
Chapter 7 Sport and American Society 196
1 Sport Reflecting the ‘American Way’ 196
2 Sport and Race Relations 199
3 Women and Sport 202
4 What Affects Sport? The Olympics and the Cold War 205
5 AIDS and the Gay Community 206
Study Guide 207
Chapter 8 The State of the Union in 2000 208
1 Multicultural America in 2000 208
2 Women in 2000 214
3 ‘One Nation, Two Cultures’? 215
4 The US Economy in 2000 220
5 Politics in 2000 221
6 The Thematic Approach to 1968–2001 222
Study Guide 223
Glossary 224
Index 232
Dedication
Keith Randell (1943–2002)
The Access to History series was conceived and developed by Keith, who created a series to
‘cater for students as they are, not as we might wish them to be’. He leaves a living
legacy of a series that for over 20 years has provided a trusted, stimulating and well-
loved accompaniment to post-16 study. Our aim with these new editions is to continue to
offer students the best possible support for their studies.
This page intentionally left blank
1
The State of the
Union in 1968
POINTS TO CONSIDER
This introductory chapter aims to show the preoccupations
and characteristics of the United States in 1968 through
studying the significance of several events in that year:
• The Tet Offensive demonstrates the impact of the
Vietnam War on US politics
• The presidential election campaign and the
assassinations of Martin Luther King and Bobby Kennedy
show concern about race, poverty and disorder
• The Miss America Pageant illustrates feminism
Key dates
1968 January– Communists’ Tet Offensive in Vietnam
February
March President Johnson said he would not
stand for re-election
April Martin Luther King assassinated
June Bobby Kennedy assassinated
August Democratic National Convention in
Chicago
September Miss America Pageant disrupted
November Nixon beat Humphrey in the
presidential election
1 | The Significance of 1968
Key question
How and why was the
Rarely in American history does a presidential election year [1968]
year 1968 significant?
coincide with the cresting of such powerful social forces. In a
bewildering array of successive crises, each magnified by the
overwhelming power of the mass media … all of the conflicts that
had emerged out of the postwar years surfaced and came before
the American people for a decision. The ultimate consequence was
defeat for those who sought a new society based on peace,
equality and social justice; victory for those who rallied in defence
m
Status quo of the status quo.
r
e
t The current state of

y affairs. Thus did historian William Chafe sum up the significance of the
e
K year 1968 in American history. Chafe depicted a society that
2 | Politics, Presidency and Society in the USA 1968–2001
contemporaries thought was coming apart. What were the K
Feminists e
‘successive crises’ and what ‘tensions’ do they illuminate? Advocates of equal y
t
• The Tet Offensive (January–February 1968) illuminated the political, social, er
m
tensions relating to the Vietnam War. economic and legal
s
• The death of Martin Luther King (April 1968) reflected racial rights for women.
tensions.
Cold War
• The triumph and tragedy of Robert Kennedy (May–June 1968)
The struggle
highlighted the tensions between rich and poor and the use of
between the
violence as a form of political discourse.
capitalist USA and
• The Democratic National Convention at Chicago (August 1968)
the Communist
demonstrated the tensions between students, politicians and
Soviet Union,
Middle America.
c1947–89.
• The disruption of the Miss America Pageant (September 1968)
illustrated the tensions between feministsand traditionalists.
• The presidential election triumph of Richard Nixon (November
1968) reflected the tensions between ‘those who rallied in
defence of the status quo’ and those who protested against it
and sought change.
Summary diagram: The significance of 1968
Crises in 1968 Tensions illuminated
• Tet Offensive • Vietnam War issues
• Death of King • Racial tensions
• Death of Bobby Kennedy • Class and political tensions
• Democrats in Chicago • Young vs old
• Miss America • Feminists vs traditionalists
• Election of Nixon • Conservation vs change
2 | The Tet Offensive and the Vietnam War
Key question
(January–February 1968)
What was the
significance of the Tet
(a) The main event – the Tet Offensive
Offensive?
The year began calmly enough, until on 30 January 1968 the
K
Vietnamese Communists launched a great offensive in South Communists’ Tet e
Vietnam. Sixty million Americans watching TV in the evenings Offensive in Vietnam: y
January–February d
saw US troops and their South Vietnamese allies struggle to clear a
1968 t
Communists out of the South Vietnamese capital, Saigon, and e
even out of the US embassy itself.
K
Ho Chi Minh
e
(b) The background to the Tet Offensive (1890–1965) y

fi
The Cold War had led Presidents Truman (1945–53), Vietnamese g
u
Eisenhower (1953–61), Kennedy (1961–3) and Johnson (1963–9) Communist who led r
e
to try to prevent Ho Chi Minh’s Communists from taking over the successful
the whole of Vietnam. Eisenhower had established an anti- struggle against
Communist South Vietnamese state, to which Kennedy and France (1945–56)
Johnson had given ever-increasing aid. In 1965 Johnson sent in and the USA
American ground troops. By January 1968, half a million (1956–69).
The State of the Union in 1968 | 3
e US soldiers in Vietnam were trying, but failing, to stop
t President Johnson
da said he would not Communist North Vietnam and its many supporters in
y stand for re-election: South Vietnam from destroying that unpopular South
Ke March 1968 Vietnamese state.
s (c) The significance of the Tet Offensive
m NLF
er Vietnamese When the US media showed Communists in the grounds of the
t Communist US embassy in South Vietnam’s capital, Saigon, many Americans
y
e National Liberation believed that it exposed the American failure in Vietnam,
K
Front. demonstrating the ‘credibility gap’ between the Johnson
administration’s claim that the USA was winning the war in
Primary
Vietnam and what was actually happening there.
Before a
On 31 March, Johnson declared that he would not seek the
presidential
Democratic Party’s nomination for the presidential election in
election, the
November 1968, but would seek peace instead. Tet had made it
Democrats and
clear that the United States would have to de-escalate in Vietnam,
Republicans hold a
and had taken President Johnson out of the 1968 presidential
kind of competition
election race.
or mini-election in
Johnson’s exit from the race opened the way for a struggle
every state. In this
within the Democratic Party. Hundreds of college students
competition, which
stopped chanting ‘Ho, Ho, Ho Chi Minh, the NLF is gonna win’.
is mostly called a
Instead, they said ‘be clean for Gene’, shaved off their beards,
primary, they
swapped their jeans for suits and ties, and campaigned for
decide which
Minnesota Senator Eugene McCarthy’s anti-war bid for the
candidate they
Democratic nomination. McCarthy won a resounding victory in
would like to
the New Hampshire primary.
represent their party
in the election.
Summary diagram: The Tet Offensive and the
Vietnam War
Significance
Background
Event
Showed US could
US opposed Communists
Tet Offensive not win; Johnson
in Vietnam from 1950
gave up
3 | Martin Luther King and Black Americans,
Key question
April 1968
What was the
significance of the
(a) The main event – the assassination of
assassination of
Martin Luther King
Martin Luther King?
In March 1968 black garbage workers who were on strike had
m
Civil rights
r invited civil rights leader Martin Luther King to Memphis,
e
t movement Tennessee, to help them in their campaign for equal pay. In

y The predominantly
e Memphis for several days, King was disturbed by the black
K black movement for
violence there. In a speech on the evening of 3 April, he reviewed
equal rights for
the triumphs of the civil rights movement, then prophetically
African Americans,
said:
c1956–c68.