Table Of ContentA MANUAL OF PRACTICAL LABORATORY
AND FIELD TECHNIQUES IN PALAEOBIOLOGY
A Manual of Practical
Laboratory and Field
Techniques in Palaeobiology
by
Owen R. Green
Department of Earth Sciences,
University of Oxford, United Kingdom
SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.
Owen
A manual of practicallaboratory and field techniques in palaeobiology / by Owen R. Green.
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ISBN 978-90-481-4013-8 ISBN 978-94-017-0581-3 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-0581-3
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9,8 2001
78~-dc21
2001023212
ISBN 978-90-481-4013-8
P,in;;ed an ncid-fre, paper
""'"",,,'r resin impregnated and prepared surface of a piston
scattered bi valve enolluscan fragments and seagrass
titic carbonatc: mud, IIolocene, Tavemier mud mound,
Florida Keys, D.S.A.
AII Rights Resenved
2001 (j'Nen R. (ireen
Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 2001
No part of the material pmtected
DT 11 i ilized
inc!c:ding n"I,IC\{'"n"
retrieval system,
For Jane. Alex. Caitlin and Leonie.
To the memory of
S.T.R.
A technique may require one or more procedures.
that are performed using a variety of methods
comprising numerous stages.
Acknowledgements
This manual has been influenced by my association, initially as a student and
latterly as a member of staff, with undergraduate courses at South London College and
the Universities of London and Oxford. To the lecturing, research and technical staffs,
undergraduate and post graduate students who have tutored, discussed and influenced
methodology with me, I am eternally grateful.
I am particularly indebted to friends and colleagues at South London College,
Tony Grindrod, Brian Hunt, Lindzi and Richard Marsh, Steve Rye and Alec Quarterman
for enthusiastically introducing me to geological specimen preparation techniques.
While in the Department of Geology at Goldsmiths' College (University of London) Dan
Bosence, Derek Briggs and Andy Johnstone encouraged the demonstration and application
of palaeontological preparation procedures in undergraduate courses. For the opportunity
to practice established and develop new techniques I am thankful. This opportunity
continued in the Department of Earth Sciences at Oxford University in establishing the
Palaeobiology Laboratories and assisting Martin Brasier and Bob Spicer. The latter to
whom I am particularly grateful for encouraging me in pursuing the publication of this
work, following its early draft as a laboratory manual. I am also indebted to Steve
Packer for discussions on numerous preparation techniques, and their application in the
commercial sector. Numerous commercial technical experts from industrial chemical and
laboratory equipment suppliers have freely provided data and information relating to the
use of their products.
The editorial staff, initially at Chapman and Hall and latterly at Kluwer
Academic Publishers, have been supportive, encouraging, helpful and sympathetic in
allowing me to develop and pursue this project, particularly as it has grown in
complexity. In particular I am grateful to the editorial contributions of Ruth Cripwell,
Ian Francis, Jane Plowman, Petra van Steenbergen, Manja Fredriksz and Donna Lynch
for providing the final encouragement in the conclusion of this project.
Finally, I would like to thank my wife Jane for continued emotional support and
encouragement, and in undertaking proof reading of the entire manuscript, and finally to
my children, for allowing me a few quiet minutes during the evening and at weekends,
and posing the most searching question -why?
vii
FOREWORD
The user
This manual is designed for the use of geo-scientists with an interest and need in
developing palaeobiological materials as a potential source of data. To meet this
objective practical procedures have been formatted for use by both professional and semi
professional students with an initial understanding of palaeo biological research aims as a
primary source of scientific data.
I have attempted to provide an explanation and understanding of practical
procedures which may be required by students undertaking palaeobiological projects as
part of a degree course. The layout of this manual should be particularly beneficial in the
instruction and training of geotechnologists and museum preparators. Graduate students
and scientists requiring an outline of a preparation procedure will also be able to use the
manual as a reference from which to assess the suitability of a procedure.
This manual is also intended for use by the "committed amateur". Many of the
techniques described in this manual have been devised by non-palaeontologists, and
developed from methods used in archaeology, zoology and botany, as well as other areas
of geology. A considerable number of the methods can be undertaken by the amateur,
and in the case of many of the field procedures, should be used. This will ensure that
specimens and samples can be conserved in such a manner as to facilitate any later
research, and not invalidate the results of subsequent geochemical analytical techniques
which might be employed.
Despite this manual covering a wide range of field and laboratory techniques
used by palaeobiologists, it is by no means exhaustive. Although a large number of
modifications to standard techniques are included, most local customising of methods has
been omitted. A large part of this omission I readily accept as ignorance on my behalf of
such modifications. The control and availability of chemicals, equipment and products
within local markets, or the implementation of health and safety regulations and by-laws
may also effect how procedures are undertaken in different countries.
The manual's scope
The systematic approach to procedures adopted in this manual is biased towards
my own personal interests. Methods are, however, not mutually exclusive to the
headings under which they described or assigned. In adopting this approach I have
attempted to provide the user with the optimum pathway in determining a suitable
technique. It is hoped that this format and numerous cross-referencing to related methods
will assist the novice, while more experienced preparators will have attention focused to
a specific procedure.
Following a short introductory section outlining practical procedures, emphasis
is placed on documentation and record keeping. The bulk of this manual, the practical
procedures employed by preparators and geotechnologists, are broadly divisible into one
of two sections, (i) field techniques, and (ii) laboratory techniques. Within the first
section, field collecting methodology and aspects of site and specimen conservation are
outlined, prior to more detailed laboratory preparation. To assist in recent approaches to
morphological and taphonomical studies, procedures for the collection and preservation of
live zoological material are also included. Semi-quantitative determinations of the two
ix
x
principle biominerals (calcite and phosphate) are also described, although as stated above,
these techniques are not exclusive to field use. Procedures used in specimen stabilization
and replication, prior to packaging and removal to the laboratory are also discussed. The
third section of the manual covers fundamental laboratory procedures. Success within
this area will be considerably enhanced in a well designed laboratory, implementing the
highest safety considerations. Prior to preparation the stabilization methods, including
those used in the preparation of recent (living) specimens is described. The bulk of this
manual is then devoted to describing in detail the wide array of physical and chemical
techniques commonly used in palaeontology.
Following the successful preparation of specimens and materials, some
consideration is given to selected analytical procedures, in particular electron microscopy
and x-radiography. Geochemical analytical procedures are not discussed, as to do this
sub-discipline justice a companion volume would be required. In conclusion I thought it
fitting to leave prepared specimens suitable for display. The final chapters of this
manual are devoted to replication, conventional photographic techniques and a brief
outline of procedures used in the display and illustration of prepared specimens.
How to use the manual
Following the initial stages of collecting and stabilization, the preparator is
required to identify those techniques specific to preparing the fossil group of interest.
Methods outlined in this manual provide a means of fulfilling this objective. Two
complimentary approaches have been adopted in detailing the methods within the
manual. Methods described as physical procedures have been grouped according to
subject area or the fossil group to which they are most applicable, and where chemical
methods are supplementary or of secondary importance. Within this part, methods have
been detailed by subject, from which it will be appreciated that applications can be
adapted for work on any fossil group supported within a matrix of known composition or
degree of induration.
The second part, concentrating on chemical procedures is more specific in
application to fossils or matrices of a known composition, reflecting preservational
differences. This approach is particularly critical in processing for microfossils, where
the small specimen size may inhibit direct, constant monitoring of chemical effects on
the organisms shell so readily evident in macrofossil preparation. Consequently many
microfossil extraction techniques are protracted and more complex than those employed
in macrofossil preparation. I make no apology for an apparent bias towards the
processing of samples for microfossils. I have always found it more convenient to
modify a technique towards the extraction of macrofossils than vice versa.
Many of the techniques described in these sections (e.g. palynological,
palaeobotanical and acid insoluble procedures) may appear superficially similar to one
another. However, subtle differences are detailed at critical parts of each the procedure.
This, inevitably, results in some repetition, but has been purposely retained to ensure
each section provides a stand-alone description and explanation of the technique.
However, where the repetition of a procedure is considered superfluous to the
understanding and continuity of the technique, it has been omitted. If a specialized
procedure has been detailed elsewhere, cross reference is made. Experienced preparators
will be familiar with these procedures, and understand the significance of the stage. Once
preparators are familiar with the methods and procedures outlined, reference need only be
Xl
made to the accompanying flow charts. These have been designed to show the
relationships between the methods and stages comprising the technique.
The manuals layout is designed to answer two questions posed by potential
users:
• how can I do this ....... ?
want to examinl' a known COlmpGiR this rock.
The lmd Chemical
FurtheuHoiGc
lllmlGquences of the
direGtly during TechnoloY1Gui in other
scientific disciplines, and subsequently applied to palaeobiology will doubtless improve
methods of examining and recording palaeobiological data. Furthermore, to fully
appreciate our palaeontological heritage, in an age when it is increasingly difficult to
collect a new data set from the field, consideration must be given to the correct
preparation of specimens within existing collections. I sincerely hope that this manual
will assistance to YGrrorming this task years.
Holt, O.R.G.
ApnI,
A MANUAL OF PRACTICAL
LABORA TORY AND FIELD TECHNIQUES
IN PALAEOBIOLOGY
CONTENTS
Acknowledgements vii
Foreword ix
I. INTRODUCTION
1 Palaeontological Techniques -an introduction to practical
procedures 2
2 Documentation in the Laboratory 12
II. FIELD TECHNIQUES
3 Field collecting procedures 20
4 Collecting techniques for microfossil and live foraminifera 27
5 Consolidation, stabilization and replication techniques 43
6 Field staining techniques for determining calcite, dolomite
and phosphate 55
7 Field documentation, sample packing and transportation 59
III. LABORATORY TECHNIQUES
A. INTRODUCTION
8 Laboratory design and layout 64
9 Safety in the laboratory 68
10 Preservation, consolidation and repair of unstable specimens 82
11 Preparation of recent material for comparative studies 98
B. PHYSICAL PROCEDURES
12 Mechanical methods for preparing fossil specimens 110
13 Fossil extraction techniques by thermal disintegration 120
14 Disaggregation and dispersal of partially consolidated and
unconsolidated sediments 127
15 Microfossil sample contamination and reliability problems 138
16 Washing and sieving techniques used in micropalaeontology 146
17 Centrifuge techniques used in micropalaeontology 154
18 Mechanical separation of microfossil residues 160
19 Flotation and liquid separation techniques 168
20 Thin section and slide preparation techniques of macro
and microfossil.specimens 182
21 Staining techniques used in micropalaeontology 211
22 Preparation of carbonate stained acetate peels and thin
sections 219
23 Preparation of amber specimens containing fossils 234
24 Preparation and conservation of vertebrate fossils 242
C. CHEMICAL PROCEDURES
25 Extraction techniques for palaeobotanical and palynological
material 256
26 Extraction techniques for acid insoluble microfossils 288
27 Extraction techniques for phosphatic fossils 318
28 Extraction techniques for uncrushed graptolites 331
xiii
xiv
29 Extraction techniques for calcareous microfossils from
argillaceous sediments 334
30 Extraction techniques for calcareous microfossils from
carbonate sediments 342
31 Extraction techniques for agglutinated foraminifera from
calcareous sediments 350
32 Specialist techniques used in the preparation of individual
microfossil specimens 355
33 Extraction techniques for calcareous nannofossils 366
D. ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES
34 Electron microscopy techniques 376
35 X-radiography techniques 391
E. EXHIBITION OF FOSSIL MATERIAL
36 Fossil replication techniques 400
37 Photomacrography and photomicrography techniques 418
38 lllustrating and exhibiting for display and publication 441
REFERENCES 450
APPENDIX
1 Equipment and chemical suppliers 490
2 Describing sedimentary rocks and fossils 498
3 Centrifuge times for bromoform separation and
water/acetone residue washing 503
4 Hazard symbols 506
5 Respirator and filter cartridge colour coding 507
6 Fire extinguisher classification 507
7 Laboratory glove resistance properties 508
8 Care and handling of hydrofluoric acid 511
9 Spillage and disposal of unwanted chemicals 514
10 Conversion data 515
(i) Temperature
(ii) Weight
(iii) Volume
(iv) Length
11 Formulae for the preparation of standard solutions 516
(i) Weight % (w/w)
(ii) Volume % (v/v)
(iii) WeightIVolume % (w/v)
(iv) Mole Fraction
(v) Standard solutions
INDEXS 517
Author Index 517
Subject Index 528
Chemical Index 534
