Water Quality & Treatment Handbook

1231 Pages·1999·9.49 MB·English

by  American Water Works Association

WATER QUALITY
AND TREATMENT
A Handbook of Community
Water Supplies
American Water Works Association
Raymond D. Letterman Technical Editor
Fifth Edition
McGRAW-HILL, INC.
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1234567890 DOC/DOC90432109
ISBN 0-07-001659-3
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CONTRIBUTORS
Appiah Amirtharajah, Ph.D., P.E. School of Civil Engineering,Georgia Institute of Technol-
ogy,Atlanta,Georgia (CHAP.6)
Larry D. Benefield, Ph.D. Department of Civil Engineering,Auburn Univeristy,Alabama
(CHAP.10)
Paul S. Berger U.S.Environmental Protection Agency,Washington,D.C.(CHAP.2)
Stephen W. Clark U.S.Environmental Protection Agency,Washington,D.C.(CHAP.1)
John L. Cleasby, Ph.D., P.E. Department of Civil and Construction Engineering,Iowa State
University,Ames,Iowa(CHAP.8)
Dennis A. Clifford, Ph.D., P.E., DEE Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
University of Houston,Houston,Texas(CHAP.9)
Perry D. Cohn, Ph.D., M.P.H. New Jersey Department of Health and Senior Services,Trenton,
New Jersey(CHAP.2)
David A. Cornwell, Ph.D., P.E. Environmental Engineering &Technology,Inc.,Newport
News,Virginia(CHAP.16)
Michael Cox, M.P.H. U.S.Environmental Protection Agency,Washington,D.C.(CHAP.2)
John C. Crittenden, Ph.D., P.E., DEE Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Michigan Technological University,Houghton,Michigan(CHAP.5)
James K. Edzwald, Ph.D., P.E. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,Uni-
versity of Massachusetts,Amherst,Massachusetts(CHAP.7)
Edwin E. Geldreich, M.S. Consulting Microbiologist,Cincinnati,Ohio(CHAP.18)
Ross Gregory Water Research Centre,Swindon,Wiltshire,England(CHAP.7)
Charles N. Haas, Ph.D. Drexel University,Philadelphia,Pennsylvania(CHAP.14)
David W. Hand, Ph.D. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,Michigan Tech-
nological University,Houghton,Michigan(CHAP.5)
Alan Hess, P.E., DEE Black &Veatch,Philadelphia,Pennsylvania(CHAP.3)
David R. Hokanson, M.S. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,Michigan
Technological University,Houghton,Michigan(CHAP.5)
Michael Horsley Black &Veatch,Philadelphia,Pennsylvania(CHAP.3)
John A. Hroncich United Water Management and Services Company,Harrington Park,New
Jersey(CHAP.4)
Mark LeChevallier, Ph.D. American Water Works Service Co.,Voorhees,New Jersey(CHAP.18)
Raymond D. Letterman, Ph.D., P.E. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Syracuse University,Syracuse,New York(CHAP.6)
Gary S. Logsdon, D.Sc., P.E. Black &Veatch,Cincinnati,Ohio(CHAPS.3,8)
Joe M. Morgan, Ph.D. Department of Civil Engineering, Auburn University, Alabama
(CHAP.10)
xii CONTRIBUTORS
Charles R. O'Melia, Ph.D., P.E. Department of Geography and Environmental Engineering,
The Johns Hopkins University,Baltimore,Maryland(CHAP.6)
Frederick W. Pontius, P.E. American Water Works Association,Denver,Colorado(CHAP.1)
David A. Reckhow, Ph.D. University of Massachusetts,Amherst,Massachusetts(CHAP.12)
Thomas G. Reeves, P.E. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,Atlanta, Georgia
(CHAP.15)
Michael R. Schock U.S.Environmental Protection Agency,Cincinnati,Ohio(CHAP.17)
Philip C. Singer, Ph.D. University of North Carolina,Chapel Hill,North Carolina(CHAP.12)
Stuart A. Smith, C.G.W.P. Smith-Comeskey Ground Water Science,Ada,Ohio(CHAP.4)
Vernon L. Snoeyink, Ph.D. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,University
of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,Urbana,Illinois(CHAP.13)
R. Scott Summers, Ph.D. Civil,Environmental,and Architectural Engineering,University of
Colorado,Boulder,Colorado(CHAP.13)
J. S. Taylor, Ph.D., P.E. Civil and Environmental Engineering Department,University of
Central Florida,Orlando,Florida(CHAP.11)
Mark Wiesner, Ph.D. Environmental Sciences and Engineering Department,Rice University,
Houston,Texas(CHAP.11)
Thomas F. Zabel Water Research Centre,Medmenham,Oxfordshire,England(CHAP.7)
INDEX
Note:f.indicates figure;t.indicates table. Adsorption (Cont.)
competitive adsorption in bisolute systems,
Acanthamoeba,2.13 13.6–13.8,13.7f.
Acid addition,11.50–11.51 competitive adsorption in natural waters,
Acinetobacter,2.8 13.8–13.12,13.8f.
Acrylamide,2.34,2.53 and desorption,13.12–13.13
Activated alumina adsorption,9.1,9.2,9.6–9.7. equilibrium,13.2–13.13
See alsoIon exchange equivalent background compound,
arsenic capacity,9.51t.,9.52–9.54,9.53f.,9.54f., 13.10–13.11,13.10f.
9.55t. external (film) resistance to transport,13.13
in arsenic removal,9.49–9.57,9.50f.,9.51t., Freundlich constants,13.19,13.20t.–13.23t.
9.53f.,9.54f.,9.55t.,9.56f. Freundlich equation,13.2,13.3,13.9
arsenic removal from spent alumina regener- ideal adsorbed solution theory,13.9,13.10
ants,9.57 and inorganic composition of water,
compared with ion exchange,9.2,9.3t.,9.26 13.5–13.6,13.6f.
defluoridation system design,9.44–9.45,9.46t. internal (pore) transport,13.13
fluoride breakthrough curves,9.45–9.46,9.46f. isotherms,13.2,13.5f.,13.6,13.7f.
fluoride capacity,9.46–9.48,9.45t.,9.47f. Langmuir equation,13.2,13.3
fluoride removal,9.44–9.48 mass transfer zone,13.14–13.15,13.15f.
future use,9.3 and pH,13.5
materials,9.7 and pore size distribution,13.4,13.4f.
model,9.7–9.8 rate-limiting step,13.13
regeneration of arsenic-spent alumina, and surface area,13.4
9.56–9.57,9.56f. and surface chemistry,13.4
regeneration of fluoride-spent columns, on synthetic resins,13.74–13.76,13.74f.
9.48–9.49 transport mechanisms,13.13–13.14
selectivity sequence,9.12–9.13 Advanced oxidation processes,12.20
in selenium removal,9.64,9.65 advantages and disadvantages,12.45t.
sensitivity to pH,9.7 Aeration,5.1.See alsoAir stripping;Gas trans-
system design for arsenic removal,9.52 fer
zero point of charge,9.7 diffused or bubble,5.43–5.55,5.43f.,5.44f.,
Activated silica,6.43 5.46f.
Additives,1.38–1.39 spray aerators,5.61–5.66,5.62f.
Adenoviruses,2.9,14.21 surface,5.56–5.61,5.56f.,5.57f.,5.58f.
Administrative Procedure Act,1.17 Aerobic sporeformers,2.18
Adsorbent resins,13.74–13.76,13.74f. Aeromonas,2.8
Adsorption,13.1–13.2.See alsoActivated alu- Aesthetic concerns,2.2,2.68
mina adsorption;Granular activated car- color,2.70
bon;Powdered activated carbon as factor in treatment process selection,
adsorbates,13.1 3.3–3.4
adsorbents,13.1 hardness,2.71
adsorption bond,13.13 mineralization,2.71
breakthrough concentration,13.14–13.15 staining,2.71–2.72
breakthrough curve,13.15–13.16,13.16f. taste and odor,2.68–270
bulk solution transport,13.13 turbidity,2.70–2.71
I.1
I.2 INDEX
Agar tests,18.30 Ampholyte polymers,6.40
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Reg- Analytical methods,1.28
istry Anion exchange.See Ion exchange
Toxicological Profiles,2.2 Anionic polyelectrolytes,6.42
Air binding,8.47 Anionic polymers,6.40
Air stripping,5.1.See alsoAeration;Gas trans- Anions
fer;Packed towers associated with principal cations causing
gas stream temperature after heating,5.40, hardness,10.14t.
5.40f. summary of ion exchange processes for
low-profile air strippers,5.17 removing,9.84t.–9.85t.
off-gas control using adsorption,5.36–5.43, Anodes,17.3,17.24
5.37f.,5.38f.,5.39t.,5.40f. Anodic current,17.3
sieve tray columns,5.17 Anodic reactions,17.8
of volatile organic chemicals,2.36 Anthracite coal,8.2,8.7,8.17
Air-pressure testing,11.26 Antiscalants,11.51,11.52t.
Air-scour AOPs.See Advanced oxidation processes
in backwash of rapid granular bed filters, Aquifer storage and recovery,4.40
8.60–8.61,8.60t. Aquifers.See alsoAquifer storage and recov-
comparison of backwash water and air-scour ery;Groundwater;Wellfield management;
flow rates,8.61–8.63,8.62t. Wellhead protection;Wells
delivery systems,8.61 cooperative management,4.28–4.29
Alachlor,2.49 effects of carbonate aquifers,4.12,4.13f.
Aldicarb,2.49 protection programs,4.32–4.34,4.34t.
Aldicarb sulfone,2.49 representative water quality from different
Aldicarb sulfoxide,2.49 types,4.12,4.15t.
Algae,2.13–2.14,4.54 sole-source designation,4.33
blue-green,2.13 U.S.and Canada,4.3f.–4.8f.
removal by dissolved air flotation with filtra- variation in water quality parameters in one
tion,3.17,3.18f.,3.21–3.22 area (Michigan),4.12,41.6t.
and taste and odor problems,4.50 Arrhenius equation,12.7–12.8
Alkalinity Arsenic,2.23,3.9
adjustment in corrosion control,17.86–17.88 breakthrough curves in alumina adsorption,
and buffer intensity,17.39–17.40,17.41t. 9.50,9.50f.
and corrosion,17.36–17.38,17.37f. breakthrough curves in ion exchange,
and distribution system water quality,3.12 9.58–9.59,9.58f.
Alternative filtration processes,8.4–8.5 capacity of alumina,9.51t.,9.52–9.54,9.53f.,
Alum,6.2,6.15,6.43 9.54f.,9.55t.
acidulated,6.23 concentration and ion exchange run length,
and aluminum hydrolysis products,6.2 9.59
and powdered activated carbon,13.64 downflow vs.upflow regeneration for arsenic-
sludge,16.2,16.3–16.4,16.17–16.23, spent resins,9.62
16.45–16.46 effect of sulfate on ion exchange run length,
Alum coagulation,6.2,6.15,6.43 9.61,9.61t.
in removal of humic substances,10.53–10.55, leakage during exhaustion (ion exchange),
10.54t.,10.55t.,10.56f. 9.60–9.61
in virus removal,10.55–10.56 oxidation of arsenite to arsenate,9.50–9.52
Aluminum,2.22–2.23,6.1 regeneration of arsenic-spent alumina,
and corrosion,17.46–17.47 9.56–9.57,9.56f.
Aluminum hydroxide,6.18,6.19f.,6.20t. regeneration of arsenic-spent resins (ion
Alzheimer’s disease,6.24 exchange),9.61–9.62
American Institute of Professional Geologists, removal by activated alumina adsorption,
4.40 9.49–9.57,9.50f.,9.51t.,9.53f.,9.54f.,9.55t.,
American Rule,4.30 9.56f.
American Society for Testing and Materials, removal by ion exchange,9.57–9.64
4.39,4.39t. removal combined with nitrate removal (ion
Ames test,2.21 exchange),9.59,9.60f.,9.60t.
Ammonia removal from spent alumina regenerants,9.57
and corrosion,17.44 resins for ion exchange removal,9.59
reactions with chlorine (chloramine forma- reuse of spent arsenic regenerant,9.62,9.63f.
tion),12.14–12.15,14.9–14.15,14.11f., system design for removal by alumina,9.52
14.13f.,14.14t. Asbestos,2.23–2.26
Ammonium silicofluoride,15.12 ASR.See Aquifer storage and recovery
INDEX I.3
Assimilative capacity,4.54 Bacteria (Cont.)
ASTM.See American Society for Testing and Helicobacter pylori,2.7–2.8
Materials heterotrophic,2.5
Astroviruses,2.10 Klebsiella,2.8
Asymmetric membranes,11.9,11.10f. Legionella,2.1,2.6–2.7
Atrazine,2.49–2.50 Mai complex,2.8
adsorption isotherms,13.10,13.10f.,13.11, mycobacteria,18.12–18.13
13.12f. Mycobacterium avium intracellulare,2.8
removal by granular activated carbon, opportunistic,2.8
13.44–13.45,13.44f.,13.45f. pigmented,18.13
ATSDR.See Agency for Toxic Substances and Pseudomonas,2.8
Disease Registry Salmonella,2.3,2.6,14.21
Atterberg limit test,16.9,16.9f. Serratia,2.8
Automation,3.10 Shigella,2.3,2.6,14.21
Available chlorine,14.5,14.6 total bacterial plate count,1.3
Available head loss,8.17 Vibrio chloerae,2.7,14.21
Yersinia enterocolitica,2.6
Bacillus,2.18 Bacteroides,2.17
Back-diffusion constant,11.54–11.55 Bag filters,8.91
Backmixing,14.28,14.39,14.47 Ballasted-floc systems.SeeFloc ballasting
and baffles,14.39–14.40,14.40f. Barium,2.26
Backwashing removal by ion exchange,9.21f.,9.35
air-scour delivery systems,8.61 Basicity,6.23
air-scour-assisted backwash,8.60–8.61,8.60t. BAT.SeeBest available technology
backwash water and air-scour flow rates, Batch thickeners,16.17,16.19–16.20,16.19f.,
8.61–8.63,8.62t. 16.21
expansion of filter bed during (rapid granular BDCM.SeeBromodichloromethane
bed filtration),8.63–8.65 Bellack,Ervin,15.3
of GAC filter-adsorbers,8.67 Benzene,2.37
granular activated carbon,8.23 Best available technology,1.25,1.27
gulf streaming,8.66 Best management practices
intermixing of adjacent layers,8.66–8.67 nonstructural,4.60,4.61t.
jet action,8.66,8.69,8.70f. structural,4.60,4.61t.
methods for rapid granular bed filtration, Biologically activated carbon and bacterial
8.58–8.63,8.59t. growth,18.6–18.7
movement of gravel during,8.69–8.71,8.70f. Biowalls,4.42
and mudballs,8.68 Birth defects
rapid granular bed filtration,8.17 and pesticides,2.48
sand boils,8.66,8.69,8.70f. BMP.SeeBest management practices
skimming during,8.66 Body feed,8.81
stratification during,8.65–8.66 Boltzmann’s constant,8.34
surface wash plus fluidized bed backwash, Boundary-layer turbulence,7.8
8.59–8.60 Brass and bronze corrosion,17.53–17.54
troughs,8.63 Brines,16.2
upflow wash with full fluidization,8.58–8.59 Bromate,2.59,12.37,12.42,14.19,14.19f.
wash water volume required (rapid granular and granular activated carbon,13.36
bed filtration),8.63 Bromide
water recovery and recycling,8.67,8.92 and DBP control by GAC,13.39
Bacteria reactions with chlorine,12.15–12.16
Acinetobacter,2.8 reactions with ozone,12.21–12.22,14.19
actinomycetes,18.14 Bromine,2.54
aerobic,2.5–2.6 health effects and DBPs,2.58,2.59
Aeromonas,2.8 Bromodichloromethane,1.7,2.60–2.61
anaerobic,2.6 Bromoform,1.7,2.61
antibiotic-resistant,18.9–18.12 Brownfields programs,4.42
autotrophic,2.5 Brownian diffusion,6.45,8.34,11.31,11.32,
Campylobacter jejuni,2.6 11.33
disinfectant-resistant,18.14,18.30 Brunauer-Emmett-Teller isotherm equation,
in distribution systems,18.8–18.16, 13.18
18.10t.–18.11t. Bubble aeration,5.43–5.44
Escherichia coli,1.3,2.7 design equations,5.44–5.48
Flavobacterium,2.8 sample calculation,5.48–5.54
I.4 INDEX
Bubble aeration (Cont.) Carcinogens (Cont.)
sample ozone absorption problem,5.54–5.55 three-category approach,1.19–1.20,1.20t.
schematic,5.43f. weight-of-evidence criteria,1.19,1.20t.
schematic of single bubble,5.44–5.45,5.44f. Cartridge filters,8.91
single-tank schematic,5.44f. Cartridge microfiltration as pretreatment for
tanks-in-series configuration,5.45–5.46,5.46f. RO and NF,11.51–11.53
Bubble-point testing,11.27 Catalysis,12.9–12.10,12.11f.
Buffer intensity,17.38–17.41,17.39f.,17.40f., Cathodes,17.3,17.24
17.41t.,17.79,17.80f. Cathodic current,17.3–17.4
Bulk solution transport,13.13 Cathodic protection,17.8
Cathodic reactions,17.8–17.9
CAA.SeeClean Air Act Cationic polyelectrolytes,6.41–6.42,6.42f.
Cadmium,2.1,2.26–2.27 Cationic polymers,6.40
Cake filtration,8.2,8.3 with hydrolyzable metal coagulants,6.43
Calcium carbonate,10.16,10.17 Cations
equilibria,10.9–10.11,10.12t.,10.13f.,10.14f. principal cations causing hardness,10.14t.
and powdered activated carbon,13.65 summary of ion exchange processes for
precipitation and NOM removal,10.47–10.49, removing,9.82t.–9.83t.
10.48t.,10.49f.,10.51 Caustic soda,10.40
scaling control in membrane processes, CDC.SeeCenters for Disease Control and Pre-
11.48–11.51 vention
Calcium carbonate precipitation potential, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
17.75–17.78,17.78f. 1.16
Calcium carbonate saturation,17.71–17.79 CERCLA.SeeComprehensive Environmental
Calcium fluoride (fluorspar),15.12,15.13 Response,Compensation and Liability Act
Calcium hypochlorite,12.13,14.5,14.36 Chemical oxidation,12.1–12.2.SeealsoChlo-
Caldwell-Lawrence diagrams,10.23–10.27, rine and chlorination;Chlorine dioxide;
10.25f. Ozone and ozonation;Potassium perman-
Caliciviruses,2.9 ganate
Camptonville,California,3.24 advantages and disadvantages of major oxi-
Campylobacter jejuni,2.6 dants,12.45t.
Canada as aid to coagulation and flocculation,12.28
drinking water standards,1.39 Arrhenius equation,12.7–12.8
Candy tanks,7.3,7.3f. catalysis,12.9–12.10,12.11f.
Capillary suction time test.SeeCST (capillary electrochemical potentials,12.2–12.4,12.3t.
suction time) test forward reaction rate constant,12.7
Carbamates,2.48 ionic reactions,12.8–12.9,12.9t.
Carbofuran,2.50 mixed oxidants,12.23–12.24
Carbon molecularity,12.7
in microbial colonization,18.20–18.21 oxidation state,12.4
Carbon tetrachloride,2.37 oxidation-reduction reactions,12.4–12.6
activity,13.18 radical reactions,12.8–12.9,12.10t.
Carbonate hardness,10.15–10.16,10.17 reaction kinetics,12.6–12.8
Carbonate saturometer,17.82–17.83 reaction pathways,12.10–12.11
Carbonic acid equilibria,10.8–10.9,10.10f. standard half-cell potentials,12.3t.
Carcinogenicity,2.20–2.22 temperature dependence,12.7–12.8
Carcinogens,1.19 thermodynamic principles,12.2–12.6
category III,1.25 types of reactions,12.8–12.9
drinking water equivalent level,1.21–1.22,1.23 uses,12.1
known or probable (Category I),1.20–1.21, Chemical precipitation,10.1.See alsoCoagula-
1.25 tion;Hardness;Water softening
linearized multistage dose-response model, calcium carbonate equilibria,10.9–10.11,
1.23,1.23f. 10.12t.,10.13f.,10.14f.
lowest-observed-adverse-effect level carbonic acid equilibria,10.8–10.9,10.10f.
(LOAEL),1.21 common-ion effect,10.3–10.6
no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL), coprecipitation,10.52–10.53
1.21 equilibrium constant,10.2–10.3
pesticides,2.48 Le Châtelier’s principle,10.3,10.10
possible (Category II),1.23–1.24,1.25 magnesium hydroxide equilibria,10.10–10.11,
reference dose (RfD),1.21–1.22,1.22f.,1.22t., 10.12t.,10.13f.
1.23 metal removal,10.6–10.8
INDEX I.5
Chemical precipitation (Cont.) Chlorine and chlorination (Cont.)
process chemistry,10.16–10.18 chlorine residual in distribution systems,
removal of humic substances,10.53–10.55, 18.16–18.17,18.35t.,18.17t.,18.36
10.54t.,10.55t.,10.56f.,10.57f. chlorine residual to control biological growth
removal of inorganic contaminants and heavy in treatment plants,12.28
metals,10.7f.,10.52–10.53,10.52t. contact tank hydraulics,14.39
residual concentration,10.6–10.7,10.7f. contact time,14.37,14.37t.
solubility equilibria,10.2–10.6 and corrosion,17.42
solubility product constants,10.3,10.4t.–10.5t. dechlorination,14.17
theory,10.1–10.13 demand,14.16–14.17
Chemicals.SeealsoInorganic constituents; disinfection by-products,12.30–12.36,
Organic constituents 12.31t.–12.34t.,12.35f.,12.39f.
carcinogenicity,2.20–2.22 forms,12.11–12.12
dose-response,2.19 free available chlorine,12.12,14.6
genotoxicity,2.20 gaseous,12.13–12.14,14.36
health effects,2.18–2.22 and granular activated carbon,13.34,13.34t.
mutagenicity,2.20,2.21 halogenated DBPs,12.1
oncogenicity,2.20 health effects and DBPs,2.55–2.56
teratogenicity,2.20 high free chlorine residual and THM forma-
toxicity,2.19 tion,3.4
in treatment additives,linings,and coatings, history,14.2
2.34,2.53–2.54 hypochlorite ion,12.12–12.13,12.12f.
Chick’s law,14.22,14.23,14.23f. hypochlorous acid,12.12–12.13,12.12f.,14.6,
Chick-Watson law,14.22,14.23,14.27 14.7f.,14.32
Chitin,6.42 increased dosage and chlorine residual,14.10,
Chloral hydrate,2.63–2.64 14.11f.
Chloramine and chloramination,2.54 in iron and manganese removal,3.19
advantages and disadvantages,12.45t. liquid,12.13–12.14
bacteria inactivation,14.32 mode of inactivation,14.32–14.33
breakpoint reaction,14.10–14.15,14.11f. molecular chlorine,12.12–12.13,12.12f.
chlorine reaction with ammonia,14.9–14.15, monitoring and control,14.48
14.11f.,14.13f.,14.14t. and pH,14.6–14.7,14.7f.,14.32
chlorine reactions with organic matter, points of application,14.36,14.37t.
14.15–14.16 postchlorination,14.37
chlorine-to-nitrogen ratio,12.41 prechlorination,14.37
CT values for Giardia inactivation,14.30, pros and cons,14.48,14.48t.
14.30t. reaction with ammonia (chloramine forma-
current practice,14..38–14.39 tion),12.14–12.15,14.9–14.15,14.11f.,
dichloramine-to-monochloramine ratio, 14.13f.,14.14t.
14.13,14.13f. reactions with bromide,12.15–12.16
disinfection by-products,12.31t.–12.34t., reactions with organic compounds,12.14
12.36–12.37 reactions with organic matter,14.15–14.16
formation,12.14–12.15 reactions with other inorganic compounds,
health effects and DBPs,2.56–2.57 14.16,14.16t.
history,14.2 residuals for posttreatment protection,14.35
U.S.utilities with long experience,14.38, and SOCs,12.27
14.38t. sodium hypochlorite,12.13,14.5–14.6,14.36
Chlorate,2.58,12.16,12.17–12.18 species,12.12–12.13,12.12f.
and granular activated carbon,13.36 superchlorination/dechlorination,14.38
Chloride terminal disinfection,14.37
and corrosion,17.43 total available chlorine,14.10
effect on anion exchange run length for ura- total oxidants,14.10
nium removal,9.78–9.79,9.78f. Chlorine dioxide,2.54,12.1,12.16
and iron corrosion,17.47 advantages and disadvantages,12.45t.
Chlorine and chlorination,1.3,2.54,12.1.See basic chemistry,14.8–14.9
alsoChloramine and chloramination chlorate formation,12.16,12.17–12.18
advantages and disadvantages,12.45t. chlorite formation,12.16,12.17–12.18
available chlorine,14.5,14.6 CT values for Giardia inactivation,14.30,
basic chemistry,14.4–14.48 14.30t.
breakpoint reaction,14.10–14.15,14.11f. demand reactions,14.18
calcium hypochlorite,12.13,14.5,14.36 disinfection by-products,12.31t.–12.34t.,12.37
I.6 INDEX
Chlorine dioxide (Cont.) Coagulants (Cont.)
factors limiting use,14.42–14.43 prehydrolyzed metal salts,6.2,6.16,6.23
generation of,12.16,14.41–14.42 and rapid sand filtration,6.2
and granular activated carbon,13.36 and residuals,6.3,16.9–16.10,16.10f.
health effects and DBPs,2.57 silica,6.2,6.43
history,14.2–14.3 simple metal salts,6.22–6.23
in iron and manganese removal,3.19,12.17 sodium aluminate,6.24
odor production,12.26 surface charge neutralization,6.16–6.17
and pH,14.33 synthetic organic polymers,6.2
pros and cons,14.48,14.48t. Coagulation,3.10,6.1–6.2.See alsoConven-
and SOCs,12.27,12.28 tional treatment;Enhanced coagulation;
in taste and odor control,12.17 Flocculation;Sedimentation
tendency not to produce halogenated DBPs, by alum in removal of humic substances,
12.17 10.53–10.55,10.54t.,10.55t.,10.56f.
Chlorite,2.57–2.58,12.16,12.17–12.18,12.37 in color removal,6.1
and granular activated carbon,13.36 defined,6.1,6.2–6.3
3-Chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-2(5H)-furanone. diagrams,6.36,6.37f.
SeeMX effect of temperature,6.57–6.58
Chloroacetaldehyde,2.63 electrokinetic measurements in monitoring
Chloroform,1.5,1.7,2.60 and control,6.58–6.61
Chlorophenols,2.65 electrophoretic mobility,6.30–6.32,6.31f.,
Chloropicrin,2.65 6.41–6.42,6.42f.,6.58
Cholera,1.2,2.1,14.1 electrophoreticmobilitymeasurementsin
Chromate monitoringandcontrol,6.58,6.59–6.61,6.60f.
concentration and anion exchange run and granular activated carbon,13.32
length,9.67 jar tests,6.30–6.40
effect of resin matrix on removal (anion in NOM removal,6.1,6.3–6.6,6.36–6.40,
exchange),9.66,9.67t. 6.37f.,6.38f.,6.39f.
regeneration of chromate-spent resin, oxidation as aid to coagulation and floccula-
9.66–9.67,9.67t. tion,12.28
removal by anion exchange,9.65–9.68 and ozone,6.44
removal from spent regenerant (anion particle removal,6.6–6.8,6.7f.
exchange),9.67–9.68 of particulates with controlled pH and negli-
Chromium,2.27 gible NOM,6.30–6.32,6.31f.
Chromogenic medium test,18.29 and pH,6.30
Churchill,H.V.,15.2 and sedimentation,7.43
C-L diagrams.SeeCaldwell-Lawrence diagrams streaming current measurements in monitor-
Clean Air Act,4.57 ing and control,6.58–6.61,6.59f.,6.60f.
Clean Water Act,4.57 with variable alkalinity,presence of NOM,
Clostridium perfringens,2.16 and metal hydroxide solubility,6.32–6.36,
Coagulants,6.15–6.16.See alsoAlum coagula- 6.33f.,6.34f.–6.35f.
tion;HMS coagulants;Polyelectrolyte water with low initial alkalinity,6.36
coagulants Coarse-bed filtration
acidity,6.25–6.27 compactness,7.78
action,6.27–6.30 comparison with DAF and sedimentation,
adsorption,6.17 7.75–7.79,7.76t.
alum,6.2,6.15,6.43 COCODAF®dissolved-air flotation,7.62,7.63f.
aluminum,6.1 Coliforms,1.3
combinations,6.43–6.44 in distribution systems,18.9,18.12t.,
destabilization mechanisms,6.16–6.17 18.26–18.27,18.30–18.31
double-layer compression,6.16 as indicators,2.15,14.20–14.21
electrokinetic measurements in monitoring Coliphages,2.16–2.17
and control,6.58–6.61 Collision efficiency factor,6.45
ferric iron salts,6.1,6.16 Color,2.70
hydrolyzing metal salts,6.17–6.22 and corrosion,17.45,17.47
impurities,6.24–6.25 and iron corrosion,17.47
interparticle bridging,6.17 removal by coagulation,6.1
metal salts plus additives,6.23–6.24 removal by ion exchange,9.68–9.74,9.70f.,
metal salts plus strong acid,6.23 9.71f.,9.72f.
and microfiltration,6.2 removal by oxidation,12.26–12.27
polyaluminum chloride,6.2,6.23 removal by water softening,10.50,10.51f.
polyiron chloride,6.2,6.23 and surface water,4.50