Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations

924 Pages·2013·18.24 MB·English

Third Edition
Handbook of
Water and Wastewater
Treatment Plant
Operations

Third Edition
Handbook of
Water and Wastewater
Treatment Plant
Operations
Frank R. Spellman
Boca Raton London New York
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Contents

Foreword ...............................................................................................................................................................................xxxvii
Preface to Third Edition .........................................................................................................................................................xxxix
Preface to First and Second Editions ..........................................................................................................................................xli
To the Reader ...........................................................................................................................................................................xliii
Author ........................................................................................................................................................................................xlv
Water: The New Oil? ...............................................................................................................................................................xlvii
Section i Water and Wastewater operations: An overview
Chapter 1 Current Issues in Water and Wastewater Treatment Operations .............................................................................3
1.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................3
1.2 Sick Water .....................................................................................................................................................3
1.3 Publicly Owned Treatment Works: Cash Cows or Cash Dogs? ...................................................................5
1.4 The Paradigm Shift ......................................................................................................................................6
1.4.1 A Change in the Way Things Are Understood and Done .............................................................6
1.5 Multiple-Barrier Concept .............................................................................................................................8
1.5.1 Multiple-Barrier Approach and Wastewater Operations ...............................................................8
1.6 Management Problems Facing Water and Wastewater Operations ..............................................................9
1.6.1 Compliance with New, Changing, and Existing Regulations .......................................................9
1.6.2 Privatization and/or Reengineering .............................................................................................11
1.6.3 Benchmarking .............................................................................................................................12
1.6.3.1 What Benchmarking Is .........................................................................................13
1.6.3.2 Potential Results of Benchmarking .......................................................................13
1.6.3.3 Targets ...................................................................................................................13
1.6.3.4 Benchmarking Process ..........................................................................................13
1.6.3.5 Benchmarking Steps .............................................................................................13
1.6.3.6 Collection of Baseline Data and Tracking Energy Use .........................................14
1.6.3.7 Baseline Audit .......................................................................................................15
1.6.4 Technical vs. Professional Management .....................................................................................17
1.6.5 Energy Conservation Measures and Sustainability.....................................................................18
1.6.5.1 Sustainable Water/Wastewater Infrastructure .......................................................19
1.6.5.2 Maintaining Sustainable Infrastructure ................................................................19
1.6.5.3 Water/Wastewater Infrastructure Gap ...................................................................20
1.6.5.4 Energy Efficiency: Water/Wastewater Treatment Operations ...............................20
Chapter Review Questions ....................................................................................................................................20
References and Recommended Reading ...............................................................................................................21
Chapter 2 Water/Wastewater Operators .................................................................................................................................23
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................23
2.2 Setting the Record Straight ........................................................................................................................24
2.3 Computer-Literate Jack or Jill ....................................................................................................................24
2.4 Plant Operators as Emergency Responders ................................................................................................25
2.5 Operator Duties, Numbers, and Working Conditions ................................................................................25
2.6 Operator Certification and Licensure .........................................................................................................26
Chapter Review Questions ....................................................................................................................................27
References and Suggested Readings .....................................................................................................................27
v
vi Contents
Chapter 3 Upgrading Security ...............................................................................................................................................29

3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................29
3.2 Consequences of 9/11 .................................................................................................................................29
3.3 Security Hardware/Devices ........................................................................................................................31
3.3.1 Physical Asset Monitoring and Control Devices ........................................................................31
3.3.1.1 Aboveground Outdoor Equipment Enclosures ......................................................31
3.3.1.2 Alarms ...................................................................................................................32
3.3.1.3 Backflow Prevention Devices ................................................................................33
3.3.1.4 Barriers ..................................................................................................................34
3.3.1.5 Biometric Security Systems ..................................................................................36
3.3.1.6 Card Identification/Access/Tracking Systems .......................................................37
3.3.1.7 Fences ....................................................................................................................38
3.3.1.8 Films for Glass Shatter Protection ........................................................................39
3.3.1.9 Fire Hydrant Locks ...............................................................................................39
3.3.1.10 Hatch Security .......................................................................................................39
3.3.1.11 Intrusion Sensors ...................................................................................................40
3.3.1.12 Ladder Access Control ..........................................................................................40
3.3.1.13 Locks .....................................................................................................................40
3.3.1.14 Manhole Intrusion Sensors ....................................................................................41
3.3.1.15 Manhole Locks ......................................................................................................41
3.3.1.16 Radiation Detection Equipment for Monitoring Personnel and Packages ............41
3.3.1.17 Reservoir Covers ...................................................................................................42
3.3.1.18 Security for Side-Hinged Doors ............................................................................42
3.3.1.19 Valve Lockout Devices ..........................................................................................43
3.3.1.20 Security for Vents ..................................................................................................44
3.3.1.21 Visual Surveillance Monitoring ............................................................................44
3.3.2 Water Monitoring Devices ..........................................................................................................45
3.3.2.1 Sensors for Monitoring Chemical, Biological, and Radiological Contamination 45
3.3.2.2 Chemical Sensors: Arsenic Measurement System ................................................46
3.3.2.3 Chemical Sensor: Adapted BOD Analyzer ...........................................................46
3.3.2.4 Chemical Sensor: Total Organic Carbon Analyzer...............................................46
3.3.2.5 Chemical Sensors: Chlorine Measurement System ..............................................47
3.3.2.6 Chemical Sensors: Portable Cyanide Analyzer ....................................................47
3.3.2.7 Portable Field Monitors to Measure VOCs ...........................................................48
3.3.2.8 Radiation Detection Equipment ............................................................................48
3.3.2.9 Radiation Detection Equipment for Monitoring Water Assets .............................49
3.3.2.10 Toxicity Monitoring/Toxicity Meters ....................................................................50
3.3.3 Communication and Integration ..................................................................................................50
3.3.3.1 Electronic Controllers ...........................................................................................50
3.3.3.2 Two-Way Radios ....................................................................................................50
3.3.3.3 Wireless Data Communications ............................................................................51
3.3.4 Cyber Protection Devices ............................................................................................................51
3.3.4.1 Antivirus and Pest-Eradication Software ..............................................................51
3.3.4.2 Firewalls ................................................................................................................52
3.3.4.3 Network Intrusion Hardware and Software ..........................................................52
3.4 SCADA .......................................................................................................................................................53
3.4.1 What Is SCADA? ........................................................................................................................54
3.4.2 SCADA Applications in Water/Wastewater Systems .................................................................54
3.4.3 SCADA Vulnerabilities ...............................................................................................................54
3.4.4 Increasing Risk ............................................................................................................................56
3.4.5 Adoption of Technologies with Known Vulnerabilities ..............................................................56
3.4.6 Cyber Threats to Control Systems ..............................................................................................57
3.4.7 Securing Control Systems ...........................................................................................................57
3.4.8 Steps to Improve SCADA Security .............................................................................................58
Chapter Review Questions ....................................................................................................................................61
References and Recommended Reading ...............................................................................................................61
Cont ents vii
Chapter 4 Energy Conservation Measures and Sustainability...............................................................................................63

4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................63
4.2 Pumping System Energy Conservation Measures......................................................................................63
4.2.1 Pumping System Design .............................................................................................................64
4.2.2 Pump Motors ...............................................................................................................................65
4.2.2.1 Motor Efficiency and Efficiency Standards ..........................................................66
4.2.2.2 Motor Management Programs ...............................................................................66
4.2.2.3 Innovative and Emerging Technologies ................................................................67
4.2.3 Power Factor ................................................................................................................................67
4.2.4 Variable Frequency Drives ..........................................................................................................69
4.2.4.1 Energy Savings ......................................................................................................69
4.2.4.2 Applications ...........................................................................................................69
4.2.4.3 Strategies for Wastewater Pumping Stations .........................................................69
4.3 Design and Control of Aeration Systems ...................................................................................................69
4.3.1 ECMs for Aeration Systems ........................................................................................................70
4.3.1.1 ECMs for Diffused Aeration Systems ...................................................................70
4.3.1.2 ECMs for Mechanical Aerators ............................................................................72
4.3.2 Control of the Aeration Process ..................................................................................................72
4.3.2.1 Automated DO Control .........................................................................................72
4.3.3 Emerging Technologies Using Control Parameters Other than DO ...........................................85
4.3.3.1 Respirometry .........................................................................................................85
4.3.3.2 Mass Balance and Measuring Plant Performance.................................................85
4.3.3.3 Critical Oxygen Point Control Determination ......................................................86
4.3.3.4 Off-Gas Analysis ...................................................................................................86
4.3.4 Innovative and Emerging Control Strategies for Biological Nitrogen Removal .........................86
4.3.4.1 SymBio® ................................................................................................................86
4.3.4.2 Bioprocess Intelligent Optimization System (BIOS) ............................................87
4.4 Blowers .......................................................................................................................................................87
4.4.1 High-Speed Gearless (Turbo) Blowers ........................................................................................89
4.4.2 Single-Stage Centrifugal Blowers with Inlet Guide Vanes and Variable Diffuser Vanes ..........89
4.4.3 New Diffuser Technology ...........................................................................................................90
4.4.3.1 Fine Bubble Aeration.............................................................................................90
4.4.3.2 Fine Bubble Aeration Application Examples ........................................................90
4.4.4 Preventing Diffuser Fouling ........................................................................................................91
4.5 Innovative and Emerging Energy Conservation Measures ........................................................................91
4.5.1 UV Disinfection ..........................................................................................................................92
4.5.1.1 Design ....................................................................................................................93
4.5.1.2 Operation and Maintenance ..................................................................................94
4.5.2 Membrane Bioreactors ................................................................................................................94
4.5.3 Anoxic and Anaerobic Zone Mixing ..........................................................................................95
4.5.3.1 Hyperbolic Mixing ................................................................................................95
4.5.3.2 Pulsed Large Bubble Mixing ................................................................................96
Chapter Review Question ......................................................................................................................................97
References and Recommended Reading ...............................................................................................................97
Chapter 5 Water/Wastewater References, Models, and Terminology....................................................................................99
5.1 Setting the Stage .........................................................................................................................................99
5.2 Treatment Process Models..........................................................................................................................99
5.2.1 Additional Wastewater Treatment Models ..................................................................................99
5.2.1.1 Green Bay, Wisconsin, Metropolitan Sewerage District .......................................99
5.2.1.2 Sheboygan, Michigan, Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant.............................101
5.2.1.3 Big Gulch Wastewater Treatment Plant ..............................................................102
5.2.1.4 City of Bartlett, Tennessee, Wastewater Treatment Plant ...................................103
5.2.1.5 Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission Western Branch WWTP,
Prince Georges County, Maryland ......................................................................104
viii Contents
5.2.1.6 San Jose/Santa Clara, California, Water Pollution Control Plant .......................105

5.2.1.7 Waco, Texas, Metropolitan Area Regional
Sewer System Wastewater Treatment Facility ....................................................107
5.3 Key Terms, Acronyms, and Abbreviations Used in Water and Wastewater Operations ..........................108
5.3.1 Definitions .................................................................................................................................109
5.3.2 Acronyms and Abbreviations .....................................................................................................115
Chapter Review Questions ...................................................................................................................................116
References and Recommended Reading ..............................................................................................................117
Section ii Water/Wastewater operations: Math, Physics, and technical Aspects
Chapter 6 Water/Wastewater Math Operations ...................................................................................................................121
6.1 Introduction ..............................................................................................................................................121
6.2 Calculation Steps ......................................................................................................................................121
6.3 Equivalents, Formulae, and Symbols .......................................................................................................121
6.4 Basic Water/Wastewater Math Operations ...............................................................................................121
6.4.1 Arithmetic Average (or Arithmetic Mean) and Median ............................................................121
6.4.2 Units and Conversions ...............................................................................................................124
6.4.2.1 Temperature Conversions ....................................................................................124
6.4.2.2 Milligrams per Liter (Parts per Million) .............................................................125
6.4.3 Area and Volume .......................................................................................................................125
6.4.4 Force, Pressure, and Head .........................................................................................................125
6.4.5 Flow Conversions ......................................................................................................................127
6.4.6 Flow Calculations ......................................................................................................................128
6.4.6.1 Instantaneous Flow Rates ...................................................................................128
6.4.6.2 Instantaneous Flow into and out of a Rectangular Tank ....................................128
6.4.6.3 Flow Rate into a Cylindrical Tank ......................................................................129
6.4.6.4 Flow through a Full Pipeline ...............................................................................129
6.4.6.5 Velocity Calculations ..........................................................................................129
6.4.6.6 Average Flow Rate Calculations .........................................................................130
6.4.6.7 Flow Conversion Calculations .............................................................................130
6.4.7 Detention Time ..........................................................................................................................130
6.4.8 Hydraulic Detention Time ..........................................................................................................131
6.4.8.1 Hydraulic Detention Time in Days.......................................................................131
6.4.8.2 Hydraulic Detention Time in Hours .....................................................................131
6.4.8.3 Hydraulic Detention Time in Minutes .................................................................131
6.4.9 Chemical Dosage Calculations .................................................................................................132
6.4.9.1 Dosage Formula Pie Chart ..................................................................................132
6.4.9.2 Chlorine Dosage ..................................................................................................132
6.4.9.3 Hypochlorite Dosage ...........................................................................................133
6.4.10 Percent Removal ........................................................................................................................134
6.4.11 Population Equivalent or Unit Loading Factor .........................................................................134
6.4.12 Specific Gravity .........................................................................................................................135
6.4.13 Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge ............................................................................135
6.4.14 Chemical Coagulation and Sedimentation ................................................................................135
6.4.14.1 Calculating Feed Rate .........................................................................................135
6.4.14.2 Calculating Solution Strength .............................................................................135
6.4.15 Filtration ....................................................................................................................................136
6.4.15.1 Calculating the Rate of Filtration ........................................................................136
6.4.15.2 Filter Backwash ...................................................................................................136
6.4.16 Water Distribution System Calculations ...................................................................................136
6.4.16.1 Water Flow Velocity ............................................................................................136
6.4.16.2 Storage Tank Calculations ...................................................................................138
6.4.16.3 Distribution System Disinfection Calculations ...................................................138
6.4.17 Complex Conversions ................................................................................................................139
Cont ents ix
6.4.17.1 Concentration to Quantity ...................................................................................139

6.4.17.2 Quantity to Concentration ...................................................................................139
6.4.17.3 Quantity to Volume or Flow Rate .......................................................................140
6.5 Applied Math Operations .........................................................................................................................140
6.5.1 Mass Balance and Measuring Plant Performance.....................................................................140
6.5.2 Mass Balance for Settling Tanks ...............................................................................................140
6.5.3 Mass Balance Using BOD Removal ..........................................................................................141
6.5.4 Measuring Plant Performance ....................................................................................................141
6.5.4.1 Plant Performance/Efficiency .............................................................................142
6.5.4.2 Unit Process Performance/Efficiency .................................................................142
6.5.4.3 Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge ......................................................142
6.6 Water Math Concepts ...............................................................................................................................142
6.6.1 Water Sources and Storage Calculations ...................................................................................142
6.6.2 Water Source Calculations ........................................................................................................142
6.6.2.1 Well Drawdown ...................................................................................................142
6.6.2.2 Well Yield .............................................................................................................143
6.6.2.3 Specific Yield .......................................................................................................143
6.6.2.4 Well Casing Disinfection .....................................................................................143
6.6.2.5 Deep-Well Turbine Pump Calculations ...............................................................144
6.6.2.6 Vertical Turbine Pumps .......................................................................................144
6.6.3 Water Storage Calculations .......................................................................................................144
6.6.4 Copper Sulfate Dosing Calculations .........................................................................................145
6.6.5 Coagulation and Flocculation Calculations ..............................................................................145
6.6.5.1 Coagulation .........................................................................................................145
6.6.5.2 Flocculation .........................................................................................................146
6.6.5.3 Coagulation and Flocculation Calculations ........................................................146
6.6.6 Chemical Usage Calculations ....................................................................................................150
6.6.7 Sedimentation Calculations .......................................................................................................151
6.6.7.1 Calculating Tank Volume ....................................................................................151
6.6.7.2 Detention Time ....................................................................................................151
6.6.7.3 Surface Loading Rate ..........................................................................................151
6.6.7.4 Mean Flow Velocity ............................................................................................152
6.6.7.5 Weir Overflow Rate (Weir Loading Rate) ...........................................................152
6.6.7.6 Percent Settled Biosolids .....................................................................................153
6.6.7.7 Determining Lime Dosage (mg/L) ......................................................................153
6.6.7.8 Determining Lime Dosage (lb/day) .....................................................................155
6.6.7.9 Determining Lime Dosage (g/min) .....................................................................155
6.6.8 Filtration Calculations ...............................................................................................................155
6.6.8.1 Flow Rate through a Filter (gpm) ........................................................................156
6.6.8.2 Filtration Rate ......................................................................................................157
6.6.8.3 Unit Filter Run Volume (UFRV) .........................................................................157
6.6.8.4 Backwash Rate ....................................................................................................158
6.6.8.5 Backwash Rise Rate ............................................................................................159
6.6.8.6 Volume of Backwash Water Required (gal) ........................................................159
6.6.8.7 Required Depth of Backwash Water Tank (ft) ....................................................159
6.6.8.8 Backwash Pumping Rate (gpm) ..........................................................................160
6.6.8.9 Percent Product Water Used for Backwashing ....................................................160
6.6.8.10 Percent Mud Ball Volume ...................................................................................160
6.6.8.11 Filter Bed Expansion ............................................................................................161
6.6.9 Water Chlorination Calculations ................................................................................................161
6.6.9.1 Chlorine Disinfection ...........................................................................................161
6.6.9.2 Determining Chlorine Dosage (Feed Rate) .........................................................161
6.6.9.3 Calculating Chlorine Dose, Demand, and Residual ...........................................162
6.6.9.4 Calculating Dry Hypochlorite Rate ....................................................................164
6.6.9.5 Calculating Hypochlorite Solution Feed Rate .....................................................165
6.6.9.6 Calculating Percent Strength of Solutions ...........................................................165
6.6.9.7 Calculating Percent Strength Using Dry Hypochlorite .......................................165
x Contents
6.6.10 Chemical Use Calculations .......................................................................................................166

6.6.11 Fluoridation Calculations ..........................................................................................................166
6.6.11.1 Water Fluoridation...............................................................................................166
6.6.11.2 Fluoride Compounds ...........................................................................................166
6.6.11.3 Optimal Fluoride Levels .....................................................................................167
6.6.11.4 Fluoridation Process Calculations .......................................................................168
6.6.12 Water Softening Calculations ....................................................................................................172
6.6.12.1 Calculating Calcium Hardness as CaCO ...........................................................172
3
6.6.12.2 Calculating Magnesium Hardness as CaCO ......................................................172
3
6.6.12.3 Calculating Total Hardness .................................................................................172
6.6.12.4 Calculating Carbonate and Noncarbonate Hardness ...........................................173
6.6.12.5 Alkalinity Determination .....................................................................................174
6.6.12.6 Calculation for Removal of Noncarbonate Hardness ...........................................174
6.6.12.7 Recarbonation Calculation ...................................................................................175
6.6.12.8 Calculating Feed Rates .........................................................................................176
6.6.12.9 Ion-Exchange Capacity ........................................................................................176
6.6.12.10 Water Treatment Capacity ...................................................................................177
6.6.12.11 Treatment Time Calculation (Until Regeneration Required) ..............................177
6.6.12.12 Salt and Brine Required for Regeneration ...........................................................178
6.7 Wastewater Math Concepts .......................................................................................................................178
6.7.1 Preliminary Treatment Calculations ..........................................................................................178
6.7.1.1 Screening ..............................................................................................................178
6.7.1.2 Grit Removal .......................................................................................................179
6.7.2 Primary Treatment Calculations ................................................................................................181
6.7.2.1 Process Control ....................................................................................................181
6.7.2.2 Surface Loading Rate (Surface Settling Rate/Surface Overflow Rate) ..............182
6.7.2.3 Weir Overflow Rate (Weir Loading Rate) ...........................................................182
6.7.2.4 BOD and Suspended Solids Removed (lb/day) ...................................................182
6.7.3 Trickling Filter Process Calculations ........................................................................................183
6.7.3.1 Hydraulic Loading ..............................................................................................183
6.7.3.2 Organic Loading Rate .........................................................................................184
6.7.3.3 Recirculation Flow ..............................................................................................184
6.7.4 Rotating Biological Contactor Calculations ..............................................................................184
6.7.4.1 Hydraulic Loading Rate ......................................................................................185
6.7.4.2 Soluble BOD ........................................................................................................185
6.7.4.3 Organic Loading Rate .........................................................................................186
6.7.4.4 Total Media Area.................................................................................................186
6.7.5 Activated Biosolids Calculations...............................................................................................186
6.7.5.1 Moving Averages .................................................................................................186
6.7.5.2 BOD or COD Loading ........................................................................................187
6.7.5.3 Solids Inventory ..................................................................................................187
6.7.5.4 Food-to-Microorganism Ratio (F/M Ratio) ........................................................187
6.7.5.5 Gould Sludge Age ...............................................................................................189
6.7.5.6 Mean Cell Residence Time .................................................................................189
6.7.5.7 Estimating Return Rates from SSV ..................................................................190
60
6.7.5.8 Sludge Volume Index ..........................................................................................190
6.7.5.9 Mass Balance: Settling Tank Suspended Solids ..................................................191
6.7.5.10 Biosolids Waste Based on Mass Balance .............................................................191
6.7.5.11 Oxidation Ditch Detention Time ..........................................................................191
6.7.6 Treatment Ponds Calculations ...................................................................................................192
6.7.6.1 Treatment Pond Parameters ................................................................................192
6.7.6.2 Treatment Pond Process Control .........................................................................192
6.7.6.3 Hydraulic Detention Time (Days) .......................................................................192
6.7.6.4 BOD Loading ......................................................................................................193
6.7.6.5 Organic Loading Rate .........................................................................................193
6.7.6.6 BOD Removal Efficiency ....................................................................................193