Walter H. Hodge and Angela L. Todd, Agricultural explorers of the USDA's Bureau of Plant Industry

30 Pages·2013·1.13 MB·English

HU NTIA
A Journal of botanical History
VolUme 14 NUmber 1
2009
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Huntia 14(1) 2009
agricultural explorers of the uSDa’s Bureau of Plant industry,
1897–1955
Walter H. Hodge and angela L. todd
Abstract
the united States Department of agriculture features Hodge’s lists of agricultural explorers employed
(uSDa) was initiated in 1862 as a presidential- in the foreign field by the uSDa between 1897 and
level response to pressures from farmers, state-level 1955. Following this paper is the first (aaron aaronsohn
agricultural societies, westward-moving settlers and to William Basil Fox) in a series of biographies of the
agricultural merchandisers. agronomist Carleton agricultural explorers, with accompanying photographs,
Ball (1873–1958) characterized four periods of uSDa named in Hodge’s lists.
development (1862–1887, 1888–1912, 1913–1932 and
1933–1962) that correlate to the time period covered
by the agricultural explorers named in former uSDa Introduction
employee Walter H. Hodge’s lists, which are given in
tables 1 and 2. Biologist Walter H. Hodge worked for the
at the turn of the last century B. t. Galloway national Science Foundation (nSF) from
(1863–1938) and E. F. Smith (1854–1927) helped draft 1966 to 1970. During that time, George H.
the legislation that created the uSDa’s Bureau of Plant
M. Lawrence (1910–1978), Hunt Botanical
industry (BPi), the department that covered plants
and plant industry research activities, including pest Library’s founding director, surprised the
control as well as cultivation and storage of plants and plantsman when without warning he walked
plant products. the BPi started operations in 1901 with into Hodge’s tokyo office. Lawrence knew
an overall goal to unify the plant departments and to
of Hodge’s hobby of photographing plants for
reduce duplications of efforts, competition for funds
and administrative costs. the BPi’s first decade was one teaching purposes and proposed that Hodge
of regular expansion with subsequent years focused on take informal portraits of botanists since his
organizing and reorganizing explorations and national regular job involved visiting nSF grantees
plant introductions. Sturdy pests, fragile seedlings and
at their places of work. Hodge was reticent
significant peril to people factored into the tenuousness
of BPi successes, which at any rate could only be at the offer and pointed out that plants never
determined over successive plant generations. in 1943 the argued about being photographed. Lawrence
BPi was reorganized and renamed the Bureau of Plant proved to be convincing, and over the years
industry, Soils, and agricultural Engineering (BPiSaE).
Hodge, the well-traveled and widely employed
the BPiSaE ceased to exist formally as a separate bureau
in 1953 when it was combined with other bureaus to biologist and photographer, has sold or donated
form the uSDa’s agricultural Research Service (aRS). thousands of photographs, as well as his own
nonetheless, the benefits gleaned from the BPi’s early professional and personal correspondence and
explorers and the plants they sent home continue to grow.
research, to the archives of the now Hunt
this paper gives histories of the uSDa’s plant projects
and government-sponsored plant exploration and institute for Botanical Documentation. When
Hodge contacted the Hunt institute in 2003
Pensacola, FL 32514 uSa [WHH] with his lists of uSDa Bureau of Plant industry
foreign field explorers, it offered a great
archives, Hunt institute for Botanical
opportunity to showcase some of his portraits
Documentation, Carnegie Mellon university,
Pittsburgh, Pa 15213-3890 uSa Email: of botanists. the agricultural explorers listed
[email protected] [aLt] in the tables that follow worked abroad for the
23
24 Huntia 14(1) 2009
Bureau of Plant industry’s plant introduction alert plant scientists throughout the country to
program, which underwent various name the uSDa’s current activity through updated
changes that are discussed on page 34, during historical accounts, which appeared in two
the years 1897–1955 or roughly the first half publications, Advances in Agronomy (Hodge
century of its operation. table 1 is a list of the and Erlanson 1956b) and, a more general
countries, arranged alphabetically, where they one for all economic botanists, Economic
explored for plant material while table 2 is a Botany (Hodge and Erlanson 1956a). Hodge’s
list of the explorers arranged chronologically original thought as co-author with Erlanson
by year of their uSDa travels. Ever since their was to have the lists published as appendices
compilation in 1955 Hodge has felt that these to their articles, but Erlanson indicated that
lists should be made available. Publishing there were inadequacies or errors that had
Hodge’s lists in an updated format with to be corrected. However, Hodge still felt
modernized geographical names also affords that they should be published along with an
the Hunt institute archives an opportunity explanatory paragraph stating the problem
to highlight our wide-ranging biographical and how the reader could verify whether any
assets. as a repository of alternate resort, the listed individual had actually collected plants
Hunt institute archives serves as a disciplinary on assignment. all plant introductions were
safety net for archival collections that may inventoried at the time they were received by
not have an obvious home. Such collections uSDa staff and assigned a plant introduction
include: a clutch of correspondence regarding number (P.i. no.) along with collecting data
the granting of an award or designing of a supplied by the collector and his name. in due
medal or stamp; files unclaimed by a surviving course Plant inventories were published as part
spouse, university archive or professional of the Bulletin, Bureau of Plant Industry, United
successor; or documents generated by someone States Department of Agriculture through 1913
so widely employed (like Hodge) that there and then as a separate publication, Inventory
simply is not one good place to keep the of Seeds and Plants Imported by the Office of
collection intact. Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, United States
Walter H. Hodge’s investment in seeing Department of Agriculture, through 1924 and
the culmination of his historical project on then as Inventory, United States Department of
agricultural explorers spans decades and began Agriculture through 1937. any listed uSDa
while he was employed as senior botanist plant explorer’s collections would have been
(1950–1952) for the BPi’s Division of Plant published eventually in an inventory a year or
Exploration and introduction and then two following his exploration; if no collections
principal botanist and assistant head (1953– appeared, then he was incorrectly listed or
1955) for the Section of Plant introduction (the was abroad for some other purpose, such as
Division was renamed in 1953) in Beltsville, participating in an international scientific
Maryland. Carl Erlanson (1901–1975), head meeting. Hodge doubted that there were few,
of the Section of Plant introduction at the if any, of the latter listed and believed that
time, kept an informal list of explorations and there were no omissions during his time with
explorers primarily used for internal office Erlanson’s office. Had Hodge remained with
reference at the uSDa. Hodge updated and the office — and he was scheduled to move
separated this list and added the geographical up as the next head of the Section of Plant
locations where explorations were conducted. introduction — the project would have been
at the same time it was deemed worthwhile to developed further, but he was offered a position
(continued on p. 28)
Hodge & Todd: Agricultural explorers 25
table 1. Countries in which agricultural exploration has been undertaken by explorers of the
BPi’s plant introduction program, 1897–1955
note: all place names have been reformatted and updated to reflect contemporary names and politics from R. K.
Brummitt’s World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions, ed. 2 (2001) and Merriam Webster’s Geographical
Dictionary, ed. 3 (1997) when possible. However, we have retained country names whereas Brummitt listed regions
or provinces. also, if Brummitt and the Geographical Dictionary used different names, we have included both.
names in parentheses are from Hodge’s original lists but are no longer used.
Afghanistan Belgium Cameroon Colombia
Gentry, H. S. Bolley, H. L. Baldwin, J. t. Jr. archer, W. a.
Smith, E. E. Carleton, M. a. Fairchild, D. Blood, H. L.
Fairchild, D. Schultz, F. W. Fairchild, D.
Albania Hougas, R. W. Popenoe, F. W.
Fairchild, D. Meyer, F. n. Canada Stadelman, R.
Swingle, W. t. Knapp, S. a. tremelling, L.
Algeria tracey, J. E. W. Meyer, F. n.
Bessey, E. a. Ryerson, K. a. Costa Rica
Bioletti, F. t. Belize (British Collins, G. n.
Fairchild, D. Honduras) Canary Islands Polhamus, L. G.
Harlan, H. V. Cook, O. F. Bioletti, F. t. Popenoe, F. W.
Kearney, t. H. Fairchild, D. Schubert, B. G.
Means, t. H. Benin (Dahomey) Schultz, F. W.
Ryerson, K. a. Baldwin, J. t. Jr. Crete and Kriti
Scofield, C. S. Chile Fairchild, D.
Swingle, W. t. Bioko (Fernando Po) Beetle, a. a.
tracey, J. E. W. Fairchild, D. Blood, H. L. Czechoslovakia
Westover, W. L. Schultz, F. W. Erlanson, C. O. Carleton, M. a.
Fairchild, D. Mann, a.
Argentina Bolivia Goodspeed, t. H. Westover, W. L.
archer, W. a. Blood, H. L. MacMillan, H. G.
Beetle, a. a. Erlanson, C. O. Popenoe, F. W. Denmark
Blood, H. L. Hartley, W. Smith, E. E. Carleton, M. a.
Fairchild, D. MacMillan, H. G. tremelling, L. Dorsett, P. H.
Goodspeed, t. H. Popenoe, F. W. Wight, W. F. Erlanson, C. O.
Hartley, W. Smith, E. E. Fairchild, D.
Stephens, J. L. Stephens, J. L. China Hansen, n. E.
tremelling, L. tremelling, L. Dorsett, P. H. Hougas, R. W.
Wight, W. F. Fairchild, D. Mann, a.
Austria Knapp, S. a. Scofield, C. S.
Bessey, E. a. Brazil Liu, P. tracey, J. E. W.
Bolley, H. L. archer, W. a. MacMillan, H. G. Whitehouse, W. E.
Carleton, M. a. Beetle, a. a. McClure, F. a.
Mann, a. Dorsett, P. H. Meyer, F. n. Djibouti (French
Rock, J. F. Hartley, W. Morse, W. J. Somaliland)
Swingle, W. t. Popenoe, F. W. norton, J. B. Harlan, H. V.
Westover, W. L. Shamel, a. D. Piper, C. V.
Stephens, J. L. Reimer, F. C. Ecuador
Balearic Islands Rock. J. F. archer, W. a.
and Baleares Bulgaria Roerich, G. n. de Blood, H. L.
Fairchild, D. Carleton, M. a. Roerich, n. C. de Fairchild, D.
Swingle, W. t. Stephens, J. L. Mexia, Y.
26 Huntia 14(1) 2009
Popenoe, F. W. Ethiopia tracey, J. E. W. Koelz, W. n.
Stadelman, R. archer, W. a. Westover, W. L. Piper, C. V.
tremelling, L. Harlan, H. V. Whitehouse, W. E. Rock, J. F.
Stephens, J. L.
Egypt Ghana (Gold Coast) Iran (Persia)
aaronsohn, a. Finland Baldwin, J. t. Jr. Fairchild, D.
Fairchild, D. Fairchild, D. Fairchild, D. Gentry, H. S.
Harlan, H. V. Hansen, n. E. Schultz, F. W. Smith, E. E.
Kearney, t. H. tracey, J. E. W Whitehouse, W. E.
Mason, S. C. Guatemala
Means, t. H. France Collins, G. n. Iraq
Piper, C. V. Bolley, H. L. Cook, O. F. Whitehouse, W. E.
Rock, J. F. Carleton, M. a. Fairchild, D.
Shantz, H. L. Fairchild, D. Gentry, H. S. Ireland
Swingle, C. F. Harland, H. V. Kearney, t. H. Boyle, H. H.
Hougas, R. W. Kempton, J. H. Morrison, B. Y.
El Salvador Kearney, t. H. Manning, C. W.
Collins, G. n. Kephart, L. W. norvell, O. W. Italy
Fairchild, D. Lake, E. R. Popenoe, F. W. Carleton, M. a.
Gentry, H. S. Means, t. H. Ware, J. O. Fairchild, D.
Kearney, t. H. Meyer, F. n. Mason, S. C.
Kempton. J. H. Morrison, B. Y. Greece Piper, C. V.
norvell, O. W. Piemeisel, R. L. Fairchild, D. Rock, J. F.
Popenoe, F. W. Rock, J. F. Swingle, W. t. Ryerson, K. a.
Ryerson, K. a. Scofield, C. S.
England Schultz, F. W. Guinea (French Swingle, W. t.
Bioletti, F. t. Scofield, C. S. Guinea) tracey, J. E. W.
Bessey, E. a. Shantz, H. L. Fairchild, D. Westover, W. L.
Bolley, H. L. Shear, C. L. Schultz, F. W.
Boyle, H. H. Swingle, C. F. Ivory Coast
Carleton, M. a. Swingle, W. t. Guyana (British Baldwin, J. t. Jr.
Erlanson, C. O. tracey, J. E. W. Guiana)
Fairchild, D. Westover, W. L. archer, W. a. Japan
Hansen, n. E. Whitehouse, W. E. Creech, J. L.
Harlan, H. V. Honduras Dorsett, P. H.
Hougas, R. W. Gambia Collins, G. n. Fairchild, D.
Keamey, t. H. Fairchild, D. Fairchild, D. Hansen, n. E.
Kephart, L. W. Schultz, F. W. Gentry, H. S. Knapp, S. a.
Lake, E. R. Kearney, t. H. MacMillan, H. G.
Mann, a. Germany norvell, O. W. McClure, F. a.
Means, t. H. Bessey, E. a. Popenoe, F. W. Meyer, F. n.
Meyer, F. n. Bolley, H. L. Morse, W. J.
Morrison, B. Y. Carleton, M. a. Hungary norton, J. B.
Piemeisel, R. L. Erlanson, C. O. Bolley, H. L. Reimer, F. C.
Rock, J. F. Fairchild, D. Carleton, M. a. Rock, J. F.
Ryerson, K. a. Hansen, n. E. Swingle, W. t. Roerich, G. n. de
Scofield, C. S. Hougas, R. W. Westover, W. L. Roerich, n. C. de
Shantz, H. L. Lake, E. R. Stephens, J. L.
Shear, C. L. Mann, a. India tull, J. H.
Swingle, C. F. Meyer, F. n. Fairchild, D.
tracey, J. E. W. Morrison, B. Y. Gentry, H. S. Java and Jawa
Westover, W. L. Scofield, C. S. Harlan, H. V. Dorsett, P. H.
Whitehouse, W. E. Swingle, W. t. Knapp, S. a. Fairchild, D.
Piper, C. V.
Hodge & Todd: Agricultural explorers 27
Kenya Kearney, t. H. Pakistan (Pakistan West) Fairchild, D.
Kephart, L. W. Kempton, J. H. Gentry, H. S. Schulz, F. W.
Piemeisel, R. L. Knapp, S. a. Smith, E. E. Westover, W. L.
Shantz, H. L. Manning, C. W.
Stephens, J. L. norvell, O. W. Panama (Panama Canal Romania
Ogden, E. C. Zone, Canal Zone) Carleton, M. a.
Korea Onderdonk, G. Collins, G. n.
Dorsett, P. H. Reddick, D. Erlanson, C. O. Russia (U. S. S. R.)
Meyer, F. n. Rolfs, P. H. Fairchild, D. Bessey, E. a.
Morse, W. J. Russell, P. Kearney, t. H. Bolley, H. L.
Reimer, F. C. Shamel, a. D. Kempton, J. H. Carleton, M. a.
Souviron, M. J. Polhamus, L. G. Enlow, C. R.
Liberia Ware, J. O. Popenoe, F. W. Hansen, n. E.
Baldwin, J. t. Jr. Schubert, B. G. Meyer, F. n.
Fairchild, D. Morocco tracey, J. E. W.
Schultz, F. W. Bioletti, F. t. Panama Westover, W. L.
Fairchild, D. Collins, G. n. Whitehouse, W. E.
Libya Ryerson, K. a. Fairchild, D.
Fairchild, D. Westover, W. L. Kearney, t. H. Scotland
Kempton, J. H. Boyle, H. H.
Madagascar Mozambique Hougas, R. W.
Swingle, C. F. Fairchild, D. Paraguay Morrison, B. Y.
Kephart, L. W. archer, W. a.
Malawi (Nyasaland) Piemeisel, R. L. Beetle, a. a. Senegal
Hodge, W. H. Shantz, H. L. Hartley, W. Fairchild, D.
Stephens, J. L. Schultz, F. W.
Malaya Myanmar (Burma)
Dorsett, P. H. Rock, J. F. Peru Sicily and Sicilia
Fairchild, D. Blood, H. L. Fairchild, D.
Knapp, S. a. Nicaragua Erlanson, C. O. Kearney, t. H.
Piper, C. V. norvell, O. W. Fairchild, D. Ryerson, K. a.
Rock, J. F. Goodspeed, t. H. Swingle, W. t.
Nigeria Mexia, Y.
Manchuria Baldwin, J. t. Jr. Popenoe, F. W. Sierra Leone
Dorsett, P. H. Smith, E. E. Fairchild, D.
MacMillan, H. G. Netherlands Stadelman, R. Schultz, F. W.
Meyer, F. n. Bolley, H. L. tremelling, L.
Morse, W. J. Fairchild, D. Wight, W. F. South Africa (Union of
Reimer, F. C. Harlan, H. V. South Africa)
Roerich, G. n. de Hougas, R. W. Philippines Fairchild, D.
Roerich, n. C. de Mann, a. Boyle, H. H. Godfrey, R. K.
Stephens, J. L. Meyer, F. n. Knapp, S. a. Hodge, W. H.
Morrison, B. Y. Kephart, L. W.
Mexico Ryerson, K. a. Poland Piemeisel, R. L.
archer, W. a. Scofield, C. S. Bessey, E. a. Shantz, H. L.
Baldwin, J. t. Jr. tracey, J. E. W. Bolley, H. L. Stephens, J. L.
Collins, G. n. Carleton, M. a.
Cook, O. F. Norway Hansen, n. E. Spain
Correll, D. S. Dorsett, P. H. tracey, J. E. W. Bioletti, F. t.
Erlanson, C. O. Erlanson, C. O. Westover, W. L. Fairchild, D.
Fairchild, D. Hansen, n. E. Harlan, H. V.
Fox, W. B. tracey, J. E. W. Portugal Ryerson, K. a.
Gentry, H. S. Whitehouse, W. E. Bioletti, F. t. Westover, W. L.
Gilly, C. L.
28 Huntia 14(1) 2009
Sri Lanka (Ceylon) Hansen, n. E. Tunisia West Indies
Dorsett, P. H. Hougas, R. W. Bioletti, F. t. Collins, G. n.
Fairchild, D. Mann, a. Fairchild, D. Cook, O. F.
Knapp, S. a. Scofield, C. S. Harlan, H. V. Correll, D. S.
Koelz, W. n. tracey, J. E. W. Kearney, t. H. Fairchild, D.
Piper, C. V. Whitehouse, W. E. Means, t. H. Kearney, t. H.
Rock, J. F. Ryerson, K. a. Kempton, J. H.
Switzerland Swingle, W. t. Knapp, S. a.
Sudan (Anglo-Egyptian Carleton, M. a. tracey, J. E. W. Miller, J. C.
Sudan) Fairchild, D. Westover, W. L. Popenoe, F. W.
Harlan, H. V. Lake, E. R. Rolfs, P. H.
Mason, S. C. Ryerson, K. a. Turkey Schubert, B. G.
Shantz, H. L. Scofield, C. S. Carleton, M. a. Shamel, a. D.
tracey, J. E. W. Enlow, C. R.
Sumatra and Sumatera Westover, W. L. Fairchild, D. Yugoslavia
Dorsett, P. H. Whitehouse, W. E. Godfrey, R. K. Carleton, M. a.
Fairchild, D. Harlan, J. R. Fairchild, D.
Tanzania Swingle, W. t. Swingle, W. t.
Suriname (Dutch (Tanganyika) Wellman, F. L.
Guiana) Kephart, L. W. Westover, H. L. Zambia (Northern
archer, W. a. Piemeisel, R. L. Rhodesia)
Shantz, H. L. Uruguay Hodge, W. H.
Swaziland Stephens, J. L. archer, W. a. Stephens, J. L.
Hodge, W. H. Beetle, a. a.
Thailand (Siam) Hartley, W. Zimbabwe
Sweden Rock, J. F. Stephens, J. L. (Southern
Carleton, M. a. Boyle, H. H. Rhodesia)
Dorsett, P. H. Venezuela Hodge, W. H.
Erlanson, C. O. Togo archer, W. a. Stephens, J. L.
Fairchild, D. Baldwin, J. t. Jr. Stadelman, R.
at Longwood Gardens that he could not turn an enormous history of the uSDa or in the
down. Once at Longwood Gardens, where he history of plant pathology. the authors have
was head of the education department from constructed here a brief narrative overview
1955 to 1961, Hodge no longer had access of the history of the uSDa and the BPi that
to the uSDa’s historic information to make serves to contextualize the explorers named in
corrections, and Carl Erlanson, on the brink Hodge’s lists. While biographical research has
of retirement, had far more important business hopefully corrected any errors of inclusion and
about which to think. exclusion in Hodge’s original lists or brought
it was difficult to find a concise history of attention to some items that need more research,
the BPi that would provide background for we acknowledge the possibility of error and
Hodge’s lists of early agricultural explorers. welcome readers to contact todd about any such
Pertinent information was embedded in either errors of inclusion, omission or attribution.
Hodge & Todd: Agricultural explorers 29
table 2. Chronological list of agricultural explorers of the BPi’s plant introduction program,
1897–1955
1897 1904 Dorsett, P. H. 1926
Hansen, n. E. Bessey, E. a. Mason, S. C. Dorsett, P. H.
Kearney, t. H. Meyer, F. n. Fairchild, D.
1898 Shamel, a. D. Popenoe, F. W. McClure, F. a.
Carleton, M. a. Shamel, a. D. Schultz, F. W.
Fairchild, D. 1905
Hansen, n. E. Kearney, t. H. 1915 1927
Knapp, S. a. Meyer, F. n. Meyer, F. n. Dorsett, P. H.
Swingle, W. t. Rolfs, P. H. Popenoe, F. W. Fairchild, D.
Shear, C. L. Kephart, L. W.
1899 1916 McClure, F. a.
Carleton, M. a. 1906 Meyer, F. n. Piemeisel, R. L.
Collins, G. n. Hansen, n. E. Popenoe, F. W. Schultz, F. W.
Cook, O. F. Meyer, F. n.
Fairchild, D. tull, J. H. 1917 1928
Knapp, S. a. Meyer, F. n. Kephart, L. W.
Swingle, W. t. 1907 Popenoe, F. W. Piemeisel, R. L.
Boyle, H. H. Reimer, F. C. Swingle, C. F.
1900 Meyer, F. n.
Carleton, M. a. 1918 1929
Fairchild, D. 1908 Meyer, F. n. Dorsett, P. H.
Lake, E. R. Hills, W. D. Morse, W. J.
Scofield, C. S. Mann, a. 1919 Ryerson, K. a.
Swingle, W. t. Meyer, F. n. norton, J. B. Westover, W. L.
Popenoe, F. W. Whitehouse, W. E.
1901 1909 Shantz, H. L.
Collins, G. n. Meyer, F. n. 1930
Cook, O. F. 1920 Bioletti, F. t.
Fairchild, D. 1910 Dorsett, P. H. Dorsett, P. H.
Knapp, S. a. Meyer, F. n. Erlanson, C. O.
Scofield, C. S. 1921 Fairchild, D.
1911 Popenoe, F. W. Morse, W. J.
1902 Meyer, F. n. Rock, J. F. Reddick, D.
Bessey, E. Piper, C. V. Russell, P.
Collins, G. n. 1922 Ryerson, K. a.
Cook, O. F. 1912 Rock, J. F. Souviron, M. J.
Fairchild, D. aaronsohn, a. Westover, W. L.
Kearney, t. H. Meyer, F. n. 1923
Knapp, S. a. Harlan, H. V. 1931
Means, t. H. 1913 Rock, J. F. Collins, G. n.
Onderdonk, G. Boyle, H. H. Dorsett, P. H.
Dorsett, P. H. 1924 Erlanson, C. O.
1903 Mason, S. C. Dorsett, P. H. Fairchild, D.
Bessey, E. Meyer, F. n. Harlan, H. V. Kearney, t. H.
Bolley, H. L. Popenoe, F. W. McClure, F. a. Kempton, J. H.
Fairchild, D. Shamel, a. D. MacMillan, H. G.
Onderdonk, G. Wight, W. F. 1925 Morrison, B. Y.
Rolfs, P. H. Dorsett, P. H. Morse, W. J.
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30 Huntia 14(1) 2009
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A history of the USDA and the BPI
the uSDa was officially written into to pressure from organized farmers through the
being in 1862 by abraham Lincoln’s Congress. grange organizations; from the united States
Previously, from 1836 to 1861, the agricultural agricultural Society, established a decade
Section of the u.S. Patent Office, under Henry earlier; and from various state agricultural
Leavitt Ellsworth (1791–1858), handled societies. However, plant exploration was
plant importation and other agricultural also becoming part of a larger trend of
matters. Ellsworth collected what he thought american movement and accumulation as
would be new and valuable plants and seeds the frontier was pushed westward. Eventually
“from many sources, including consuls and national agricultural issues brought on by land
navy officers. the seeds and plants were acquisition had to be addressed.
then distributed through Congressmen as the country’s largely agrarian population
and agricultural societies” (Baker 1963, ventured westward, problems of safe grazing,
p. 5).1 Local and national groups had been changing microclimates and plant adaptability
sporadically but regularly agitating for formal came to the fore. additional problems, such as
agricultural representation in the government dry land and irrigated farming, drought, wilt,
(Hodge and Erlanson 1956a, p. 302). the infestations, unregulated introductions, the
department was finally established in response Civil War’s effect on economic crops in the