Vetiveria: The Genus Vetiveria (Medicinal and Aromatic Plants - Industrial Profiles)

193 Pages·2002·7.44 MB·English

by  Massimo Maffei

Vetiveria
The Genus Vetiveria
Edited by
Massimo Maffei
Department of Plant Biology,
University of Turin,
Italy
London and New York
Copyright © 2002 Taylor and Francis
First published 2002
by Taylor & Francis
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© 2002 Taylor and Francis
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Copyright © 2002 Taylor and Francis
Contents
Contributors
Introduction
1 Introduction to the Genus Vetiveria
2 Anatomy, Biochemistry and Physiology
3 Collection, Harvesting, Processing, Alternative Uses and
Production of Essential Oil
4 Chemical Constituents and Essential Oil Biogenesis in
Vetiveria Zizanioides
5 Ethnopharmacology and Pharmacological Properties of
Vetiveria Zizanioides – Including Pharmacologic and
Pharmacokinetic Properties
6 Vetiver Grass Technology
7 Biotechnology
8 Economic Importance, Market Trends and Industrial
Needs, and Environmental Importance
9 Beyond the Vetiver Hedge – Organizing Vetiver’s Next
Steps to Global Acceptance
Copyright © 2002 Taylor and Francis
List of Contributing Authors
Anand Akhila – Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. Lucknow, India
226 015. Telephone: [phone]; Fax: [phone]; email: akhiladr@lw1.
vsnl.net.in
Cinzia M. Bertea – Department of Plant Biology, University of Torino, Viale
P.A. Mattioli 25, I–10125 Torino, Italy. Telephone: [phone]; Fax
[phone]; email: [email protected]
Wanda Camusso – Department of Plant Biology, University of Torino, Viale
P.A. Mattioli 25, I–10125 Torino, Italy. Telephone: [phone]; Fax
[phone]; email: [email protected]
Nwainmbi Simon Chia – Belo Rural Development Project (BERUDEP), PMB, P.O.
Box 5, Belo-Boyo, N.W. Province. Cameroon.
Ruth E. Leupin – Institute of Biotechnology ETH Hönggerberg, CH–8093 Zürich,
Switzerland. Telephone: [phone]; Fax: [phone]; email: leupin@
biotech.biol.ethz.ch
Massimo Maffei – Department of Plant Biology, University of Torino, Viale P.A.
Mattioli 25, I–10125 Torino, Italy. Telephone: [phone]; Fax +39 011
670 7459; email: [email protected]
Marco Mucciarelli – Department of Veterinary Morphophysiology, University of
Torino, Viale P.A. Mattioli 25, I–10125 Torino, Italy. Telephone: [phone];
Fax: [phone]; email: [email protected]
Michael W.L. Pease – Co-ordinator, European and Mediterranean Vetiver Network.
Quinta das Espargosas, Odiaxere, 8600 Lagos, Algarve, Portugal. Telephone and
Fax: [phone]; email: [email protected]
Mumkum Rani – Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. Lucknow,
India 226 015. Telephone: [phone]; Fax: [phone].
Paul Truong – Principal Soil Conservationist, Resource Sciences Centre, Queensland
Department of Natural Resources. Brisbane, Australia. Telephone: [phone];
Fax: [phone]; email: [email protected]
Noel Vietmeyer – Office of International Affairs. National Academy of Sciences.
Washington, DC 20418, USA. email: [email protected]
Claudio Zarotti – Viale Teodorico, 2 20149 Milan, ITALY. Telephone: 02 – 324879;
Fax: 02 – 325922; email: [email protected]
Copyright © 2002 Taylor and Francis
Introduction vii
Introduction
Few plants have the capability of being both economically and ecologically important.
Vetiveria possesses both qualities ensuring that the plants are one of the most versatile
crops of the third millennium. The economic importance of the genus Vetiveria de-
pends on the ability of the species V. zizanioides (L.) Nash to produce odorous roots,
which can be used for the extraction of an essential oil of great economic importance.
The ecological importance is due to the ability of the plant to act as a natural barrier
against erosion and soil pollution.
The essential oil that is produced in secretory cells located inside the mature roots
has been used since ancient times as a perfume as well as a natural remedy against
human and animal diseases. It consists of a complex mixture of sesquiterpene hydro-
carbons and alcohols, which are mostly used as a basic material for perfumery. The
oil’s aroma has a woody, earthy character; it is pleasant and persistent. The chemical
composition of the oil makes vetiver oil an irreplaceable source when a woody, earthy
note is required for a perfume. In this book, several chapters describe the characteris-
tics of vetiver essential oil such as the site of oil production (Chapter 2) and oil
biogenesis and chemical composition (Chapter 4). Pharmacological properties of
V. zizanioides are described in a technical note in Chapter 5, and Chapter 3 deals with
essential oil extraction including description of the distillation process and subsequent
storage of the oil.
The economic importance of Vetiveria has prompted a series of biotechnological
studies directed toward assessment of protocols for callus induction and plant regen-
eration as well as DNA analysis of the genome. These aspects are described in Chapter
7, where the authors present an overview of the most recent achievements in the field
of vetiver biotechnology, as well as giving their own contributions to the cell, tissue
and organ culture of the most important species of the genus, viz. V. zizanioides.
The ecological importance of the genus Vetiveria is described by some of the most
qualified experts in this field. The ability of V. zizanioides to be a natural barrier
against erosion cannot be separated from its characteristic of being an aromatic plant.
During the last twenty years the importance of the plant as a simple and low cost
method of soil conservation has grown, as well as its importance in producing a
valuable essential oil. This growth of interest prompted the creation of The Vetiver
Network, an international organization devoted to the spreading of the knowledge of
the application of V. zizanioides for all ecological applications in what is called Vetiver
Grass Technology. This topic, of sound worldwide importance, is described in Chapter
6, along with detailed description of other applications such as infrastructure and
environmental protection.
Copyright © 2002 Taylor and Francis
Aspects of both ecology and oil production are considered in term of market trends,
industrial needs, economy and environmental importance in Chapter 8, through a
careful analysis of costs and benefits related to the vetiver global market. The last
chapter analyses the future of vetiver, by giving a forecast of the needs and potential
applications of the plants.
Vetiver oil production is still a source of income and a precious and irreplaceable
source for basic notes to be used in perfumery. Vetiver grass technology is a natural
force against erosion and for the fight against environmental pollution. It is really rare
to find in a single plant such a wide range of applications and Vetiveria represent an
almost unique example of a total-employment plant. In addition the plant is a high
photosynthetic efficiency species, displaying C4 photosynthesis and is described in
terms of anatomy, biochemistry and physiology in Chapter 2.
The aim of this book is to give the reader a full picture of the great potential of the
genus Vetiveria, through a wide view on both economic (essential oil production and
utilization) and ecological (vetiver grass technology) aspects. The contribution given
by the authors, while giving an exhaustive and detailed state of the art on vetiver
brings the connoisseurs of the properties of vetiver oil to the new world of vetiver
grass technology. At the same time, it gives the users of vetiver as a “green line against
erosion” the basic knowledge to appreciate the qualities of the plant as an essential oil
producer.
Copyright © 2002 Taylor and Francis
Introduction to the Genus Vetiveria 1
1 Introduction to the Genus
Vetiveria
Massimo Maffei
Department of Plant Biology, University of Turin, Viale P.A. Mattioli,
25 I–10125 Turin, ITALY
Historical Background
Vetiver grass, in particular the species Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash, has been known
to be a useful plant for thousands of years. It is mentioned in ancient Sanskrit writings
and is also part of Hindu mythology. Rural people have used it for centuries for the oil
from its roots, for the roots themselves, and for the leaves. Its center of origin appears
to be in southern India and it has spread around the world through its byproduct
value as a producer of an aromatic oil for the perfume industry. In the latter part of the
last century and also in this century the sugar industry particularly in the West Indies,
the off shore eastern African islands such as Mauritius and Reunion, and Fiji, has used
the grass for its conservation properties (Grimshaw, 1998).
Vetiver grass has grown in the tropics over many centuries (NRC, 1993) and it has
been mentioned among inscriptions on Kananj king copper plates since 1103 A.D. It
has been cultivated longest for the scented oil produced by its roots as well as for the
ability of the plant to retain soil and prevent erosion. For over two hundred years there
has been an irresolved controversy over both the naming of the genus and the species
of this grass. Hence, at the beginning of the twentieth century, the Andropogon grasses
were frequently confused with each other and even after a great deal of library work
and search for original specimens, as documentary evidence, in the older herbaria,
Stapf stated that there could still be some confusion in the taxonomy of these grasses.
Even today many doubts remain on the systematical identification of the species.
Another source of doubt is raised by the fact that the cultivars of vetiver found in
other parts of the world have been named individually by the different people; for
example, the species called V. nigritana in Nigeria could in fact be V. zizanioides, and
until we have some better means of distinguishing the species from each other the true
identity remains doubtful (Greenfield, 1988).
Historically, vetiver grass was known by the peoples of Northern India by the
popular names “Khas Khas” or “Vetiver.” Other Sanskrit names which have beeninter-
preted in the same sense are “Virana”, “Lamajjaka” (or “Lamaja”) and “Bala”. Theactual
term used is ‘turushka-danda’, which Babu Rajendrala’la Mitra interprets as meaning
‘aromatic reed’ (turushka = aromatic substance, danda = stick), and hence also ‘Khas
Khas’. The latter term, now so commonly used, is supposed to be of Persian origin,
but this appears doubtful (Greenfield, 1988). It has long been known that the roots,
but not the leaves, are fragrant and are sold in the bazaars to prepare lotions, infusions
and decoctions for medical purposes. In Colombo, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), the grass has
Copyright © 2002 Taylor and Francis
been known since the seventeenth century as “Saewaendara”, a name surviving to the
present day. In 1700, it was known in Madras under the Tamil name of “Vettyveer”
(=Vetiver), the vernacular name by which the grass is best known in Europe. A list of
other common names is given later in this chapter.
Ground roots of vetiver have been used since ancient times to prepare odorous pads,
while in woven form they provided perfumed strings, fans or curtains protecting from
summer heat and producing a pleasant smell when watered or pushed by the wind. In
infusion, roots have been used to provide a refreshing drink against fevers or stomach
diseases. Used for topical applications, vetiver preparations are known to relieve pains
caused by skin burns and warm sensations. The essential oil was used against cholera
because of its emetic properties. Chapter 5 describes some of the main pharmacologi-
cal properties of vetiver oil together with ethnopharmacological data. Nevertheless it
is because of its odorous essential oil, used particularly in perfumery, that the plant is
famous (Peyron, 1989).
Recently, many efforts have been made to use vetiver as an agent for soil erosion
control and moisture retention. Vetiver was introduced into World Bank-assisted
watershed projects in India for soil conservation on hillslopes. From the beginning,
visual material demonstrating the effective use of hedges in Fiji helped immensely to
convince Indian farmers. Despite resistance from the Indian Extension Service and
research institutions and skepticism, vetiver demonstrations and trials grew and the
technology met with success at the grassroots level, specifically through non govern-
mental organizations (NGOs), technicians and farmers. The initial excitement and
success with vetiver in India spread and now vetiver can be found incorporated into
both on- and off-farm conservation programs in a growing number of countries includ-
ing Australia, Bolivia, Brazil, China, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala,
Honduras, India, Indonesia, Madagascar, Malawi, Malaysia, Mexico, Nepal, Nicaragua,
Nigeria, Philippines, Sri Lanka, South Africa, Thailand, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Vetiver
trials have begun in more than 25 countries as a result of World Bank extension
efforts. Indeed, the excitement surrounding vetiver has grown so much that the potential
for its use, both for agricultural and nonagricultural purposes, is exceptional (Slinger,
1997).
Description, Taxonomy, Distribution and Cultivation
Vetiveria Lem. Lisank is an important aromatic plant genus, belonging to the family
Poaceae (Gramineae) (subfamily Andropogoneae) and comprising ten species. The
genus is related to the genera Sorghum subgen parasorghum and Chrysopogon (Clayton
and Renvoize, 1986). The species V. zizanioides and V. lawsonii are from the Indian
subcontinent and V. nigritana is reported from Africa. V. zizanioides (L.) Nash, com-
monly known as vetiver grass or Khus grass, is widely distributed in India, Burma,
Ceylon, and spread from Southwest Asia to tropical Africa (Bor, 1960). It is a coarse
perennial grass, densely tufted, awnless, wiry and glabrous which occurs in both wild
and cultivated forms in many parts of the tropics and subtropics.
The plant is a tufted perennial occurring in large clumps arising from a much
branched “rootstock”; the culms are erect 0.5–3 m high (see Chapters 3 and 6 for
illustrations). The leaves are basal and cauline with relatively stiff, elongate blades up
to 80 cm long and 8 mm wide (Sreenath et al., 1994). The leaves are usually conduplicate
basally, splitting along midrib apically and pubescent basally and sometimes purple.
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Leaf margins are revolute, the uppermost bearing vitreous spines; sheaths are glabrous;
the ligulesn narrow projections from the apices of leaf-sheaths of grasses, are fringe
of hair 0.3–1 mm long. Panicles, loose irregular types of compound inflorescences
common to grasses, are 15–30 cm long and comprise numerous racemose, spike-like
branches and are usually purple with the rachis or stem disarticulating at base of
sessile spikelet. The spikelets are dorsally compressed and paired, one being sessile and
perfect, the other pedicellate and staminate or neuter. Some cultivated forms seldom
flower. The sessile spikeleta are about 5 mm long, somewhat flattened laterally, bear-
ing short sharp spines and are hermaphrodite with 3 stamens and 2 plumose stigmas
each. The glumes or chafflike bracts of the sessile spikelets are also 5 mm long and are
described as acuminate, coriaceous, nerveless, vitreous, papillose and spinose; the lem-
mas or bracts with flowers in their axes are about 3.5 mm long, acuminate, inrolled,
tinged with purple and apices and margins are scarious (thin, dry and membraneous);
the paleas or caryopsis is usually not seen. The pedicellate spikelets are slightly smaller
than the sessile spikelets. The chromosome number is 2n = 20.
Other reputedly valid species and varieties belonging to the Vetiveria genus are:
V. arguta (Steud.) C.E. Hubb., V. elongata (R. Br.) Stapf, V. filipes (Benth.) C.E. Hubb.,
V. filipes (Benth.) C.E. Hubb. var. arundinacea (Reeder) Jansen, V. fulvibarbis (Trin.)
Stapf, V. intermedia S.T. Blake, V. lawsoni (Hook.f.) Blatter & McCann, V. nigritana
(Benth.) Stapf, V. pauciflora S.T. Blake, V. rigida B.K. Simon and V. zizanioides (L.)
Nash var. tonkinensis A. Camus.
Vetiveria zizanioides technical specification
Common names
INDIA – Sanskrit: Abhaya; Amrinala; Avadaha; Bala; Dahaharana; Gandhadhya;
Haripriya; Indragupta; Ishtakapatha; Jalamoda; Jalashaya; Jalavasa; Katayana;
Laghubhaya; Lamajjaka; Nalada; Ranapriya; Rambhu; Reshira; Samagandhika; Sevya;
Shishira; Shitamulaka; Sugandhimula; Ushira; Vira; Virabhadra; Virana; Virataru;
Vitanamulaka. Hindi: Bala; Balah; Bena. Ganrar: Khas; Onei; Panni. Urdu: Khas.
Bengali: Khas-Khas. Gujarati: Valo. Marathi: Vala; Khas-Khas. Mundari: Birnijono,
Sirum; Sirumjon. Oudh: Tin. Punjab: Panni. Sadani: Birni. Santali: Sirom. Telugu:
Avurugaddiveru; Kuruveeru; Lamajjakamuveru Vettiveeru; Vidavaliveru. Tamil:
Ilamichamver; Vettiver; Vilhalver; Viranam. Kannada: Vettiveeru; Laamanche; Kaadu;
Karidappasajje hallu. Mysore: Ramaccham; Ramachehamver Vettiveru. SRI LANKA –
Sinhalese: Saivandera; Savandramul. BURMA: Miyamoe. IRAN – Persian: Bikhiwala;
Khas. CHINA – Xiang-Geng-Sao. MALAYSIA: Nara wastu; Nara setu; Naga setu;
Akar wangi (fragrant root); Rumput wangi (fragrant grass); Kusu-Kusu.INDONESIA:
Aga wangi; Larasetu; Larawestu; Raraweatu; Sundanese; Janur; Narawastu; Usar. PHIL-
IPPINES: Ilib (Pamp.); Mora (Bik, Bis); Moras (Tag., Bis., Bi.); Moro (Tag), Narawasta
(Sul); Raiz de moras (Sp); Rimodas (P. Bis); Rimora (Sbl); Rimoras (Bik); Tres-moras
(Bis) Vetiver (Eng.); Amoora (C. Bis); Amoras (Ilk); Anias de moras (Pamp); Giron
(P. Bis); Muda (Cebu – Central Visayas). LAOS and THAILAND: Faeg. SAHEL –
Bambara: babin, ngongon, ngoko ba. Songhai: diri. Fulani: kieli, dimi, pallol. Sarakolle:
kamare. Mossi: roudoum. Gurma: kulkadere. ETHIOPIA: Yesero mekelakeya. SEN-
EGAL – Wolof: sep, tiep. Falor: toul. Tuk: semban. GHANA: N. Terr. Dag; kulikarili.
N. NIGERIA – Hausa: jema. Fulani: so’dornde; so’mayo; chor’dor’de; ngongonari.;
Copyright © 2002 Taylor and Francis