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SOCIAL
Social Research
Fourth Edition
S
O RESEARCH
“This updated and expanded version of the excellent book includes new sections on case
study research and reflections on research in practice, both of which are valuable
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additions to this important methods text. Useful chapter summaries, questions for
reflection and research examples enhance the student experience and the book is well- I
written, comprehensive and authoritative.” A
ISSUES, METHODS AND PROCESS
Dr. Liam Foster, Department of Sociological Studies, University of Sheffield, UK
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This fully revised and updated popular text successfully bridges the gap between theory FOURTH EDITION
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and methods in social research, clearly illuminating these essential components for
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understanding the dynamics of social relations. E
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The book is divided into two parts, with Part One examining the issues and perspectives S S E C
in social research and Part Two setting out research methods and processes. Updates to E U S
this edition include: E IG L RE
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(cid:129) A new chapter on case study research ON & NN NS I
(cid:129) A new concluding chapter R H O O
(cid:129) Links to additional websites and IT applications that are integrated C SW CE SC TI RIS
throughout the book EI T I S A
(cid:129)(cid:129) UMpodrea tiendt eerxnpaetiroiennatl iaelx aemxapmlepsles and scenarios H VRETNI WEN HTE QUE CO MP V A TI O N E
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The clear writing style, chapter summaries, questions for reflection and signposts to K N O B S E
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further readings continue to make this book the ideal companion for students of social
FOURTH W
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key developments in the field. D O C U T
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Tim Mayis Professor and Director at the Centre for Sustainable Urban and Regional
Futures, University of Salford, Greater Manchester, UK. He is co-author of M G REFLEXIVITY
SituatingSocial Theory(2008) and editor of the series Issues in Society(Open
University Press). A
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Cover design: del norte (Leeds) ltd, from an original illustration by Tim May E
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T I M M A Y
SOCIAL RESEARCH
FOURTH EDITION
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SOCIAL RESEARCH
Issues, methods and process
FOURTH EDITION
Tim May
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Open University Press
McGraw-Hill Education
McGraw-Hill House
Shoppenhangers Road
Maidenhead
Berkshire
England
SL6 2QL
email: [email protected]
world wide web: www.openup.co.uk
and Two Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121-2289, USA
First published 1993
Second edition published 1997
Third edition published 2001
Reprinted 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006 (twice), 2007, 2008, 2010
First published in this fourth edition 2011
Copyright © Tim May, 2011
All rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short passages for the purposes
of criticism and review, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored
in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of the publisher or a licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency
Limited. Details of such licences (for reprographic reproduction) may be
obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd of Saffron House, 6–10
Kirby Street, London, EC1N 8TS.
A catalogue record of this book is available from the British Library
ISBN-13: 978-0-33-523567-4
ISBN-10: 0-33-523567-0
e-ISBN: 978-0-33-523998-6
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
CIP data applied for
Typeset by Refi neCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk
Printed in the UK by Bell & Bain Ltd, Glasgow
Fictitious names of companies, products, people, characters and/or data that may
be used herein (in case studies or in examples) are not intended to represent any
real individual, company, product or event.
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Contents
Acknowledgements ix
Preface to the second edition x
Preface to the third edition xii
Preface to the fourth edition xiv
Introduction 1
Aim and content 2
Part I: An overview 3
Part II: An overview 3
Part III: An overview 4
PART I ISSUES IN SOCIAL RESEARCH 5
1 Perspectives on social scientifi c research 7
The world and experience 7
The objective world 8
The experienced world 13
Bridge-building 14
Knowledge and difference 17
Exclusions 17
Inclusions 20
Summary 24
Suggested further reading 25
2 Social theory and social research 26
The interactions of social theory and social research 27
Linking issues 30
Making the links 35
Summary 43
Suggested further reading 45
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vi CONTENTS
3 Values and ethics in the research process 46
Values and social research 47
What are value judgements? 47
Values in the research process 50
Connecting values and research 56
Ethics and social research 60
What is ethics? 61
Relations between ethics and social research 64
Summary 69
Suggested further reading 70
PART II METHODS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH 71
4 Offi cial statistics: topic and resource 73
Sources 74
Issues in construction 77
Offi cial statistics: the debates 84
Summary 89
Suggested further reading 91
5 Social surveys: design to analysis – with Carole Sutton 93
Types of surveys 94
The logic of survey method 96
Survey research design 98
Sampling 98
Survey construction 102
Preliminary work 102
Types of questionnaires 103
Designing and testing questions 106
Types of questions 108
Attitude scales 111
Question wording 112
Categories and coding 114
Managing coding processes: coding frames
and codebooks 116
Methodological innovation, technology and the
internet in survey research 117
Development 118
Sampling and internet surveys 120
Questionnaire analysis 121
Levels of measurement 122
Data analysis strategies 122
Surveys in critical perspective 125
Summary 129
Suggested further reading 130
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CONTENTS vii
6 Interviewing: methods and process 131
Interviews in social research 131
Structured interview 132
Semi-structured interview 134
Unstructured or focused interview 136
Group interview and focus group 137
Conducting interviews in social research 139
Prescriptions for interviewing practice 139
The practice of focused interviews 143
Interviews: encounters in understanding 147
The analysis of interviews 150
Issues in interviewing 157
Summary 158
Suggested further reading 160
7 Participant observation: perspectives and practice 161
Participant observation and social research 162
The Chicago School and participant observation 163
Refl exive waters 166
The practice of participant observation 169
The researcher’s role 170
Access 173
Utilizing fl exibility 175
Field notes 177
Subjective adequacy 178
The analysis of observations 180
Writing ethnography 185
Issues in participant observation 186
Summary 189
Suggested further reading 190
8 Documentary research: excavations and evidence 191
The place of documents in social research 191
Sources of documentary research 194
The process of documentary research 198
Using documents 202
Approaching a document 206
The analysis of documents 208
Quantitative and qualitative approaches 209
A note on presenting fi ndings 214
Issues in documentary research 215
Summary 216
Suggested further reading 218
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viii CONTENTS
9 Case study research – with Beth Perry 219
The place of the case study in social research 220
Critique, defence and appropriation 221
Description, narrative and bridge-building 224
The process of case studies 227
To case or not to case? 228
Case study design and methods 233
Analysis of case studies 236
Summary 241
Suggested further reading 242
10 Comparative research: potential and problems – with
Beth Perry 243
Globalization, cosmopolitanism and comparative research 244
The place of comparison in social research 247
Processes of comparative research 253
Issues in comparative research 259
Summary 266
Suggested further reading 267
PART III RESEARCH IN PRACTICE 269
11 Refl ections on research in practice 271
The ebbs and fl ows of social research 271
Research, knowledge and consequence 274
The labour of social research: potential, limits and modesty 280
Bibliography 283
Author index 321
Subject index 329
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Acknowledgements
There are a number of people I would like to thank who have been
sources of friendship and support during the writing process.
At SURF, my thanks go to Simon Marvin and Mike Hodson for the
support and to Matt Thompson and Vicky Simpson for their assistance.
Beth Perry and I have worked together on many projects that have
involved comparative research and case studies. It thus made perfect
sense to ask Beth to co-author those chapters. My thanks to her for that
and for reading the entire manuscript and suggesting positive change to
its content.
Cian, Calum, Alex, Nick and Lewis remind me that there are many
other things beside the world of work to preoccupy my time in so many
different ways and their lives are a never-ending source of change, insight,
experience and hope. My love and gratitude to Vikki for her support and
for so many good times and for many more to come in our lives together.
Malcolm Williams, whom I asked in the production of the second
edition to join me in writing the questionnaire chapter, took on new
responsibilities which prevented him from contributing to this edition. I
was, however, fortunate that Carole Sutton, who is an experienced quan-
titative researcher and author, agreed to co-author that chapter and my
thanks to her.
Finally, my thanks to Ken Parsons for his friendship and the editorial
and production teams at Open University Press/McGraw-Hill and to
Christine Firth for her excellent copy-editing skills.
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