Revolutionary War Almanac

769 Pages·2006·12.79 MB·English

ALMANACS OF AMERICAN WARS
oo
R W
EVOLUTIONARY AR
A
LMANAC
John C.Fredriksen
Revolutionary War Almanac
Copyright © 2006 by John C.Fredriksen
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Library ofCongress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Fredriksen,John C.
Revolutionary War almanac / John C.Fredriksen.— 1st ed.
p.cm.—(Almanacs ofAmerican wars)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8160-5997-7 (hardcover:alk.paper)
1. United States—History—Revolution,1775–1783.2.United States—History—
Revolution,1775–1783—Miscellanea.3.Almanacs,American.I.Title.II.Series.
E208.F725 2006
973.3'3—dc22 2005007333 2003062687
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Text design by Erika K.Arroyo
Cover design by Pehrsson Design
Maps by Jeremy Eagle
Printed in the United States ofAmerica
VB FOF 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
C
o ONTE NTS
Introduction iv
Chronology 1
Historical Dictionary A–Z 241
Appendix 713
MAPS 713
Bibliography 734
Index 743
I
o NTRODUCTION
The Revolutionary War,a seminal event in human history,forever altered the polit-
ical,ideological,and philosophical outlook ofnational governance.What began as
a protest against taxes in 1765 multiplied exponentially over the ensuing decade into
full-scale rebellion against parliamentary missteps and misrule.Nor should it be
understated that more than a year lapsed before the struggling American polity sev-
ered cherished economic,social,and emotional ties with Britain.It fell upon a bril-
liant clique ofradicals in Philadelphia to finally declare,with an eloquence that still
resonates,that they were no longer colonies but a sovereign people newly emergent
among the community ofnations.Hostilities ended eight years later with the birth
ofa new republic,founded for the first time upon both classical and Enlightenment
precepts.This new entity,the United States ofAmerica,would gradually wield an
indelible impact upon world affairs.Its intrinsic idealism,posited as self-evident in
the Declaration ofIndependence,ultimately transcended the thunderous fields of
Lexington and Yorktown to command a dominant place on the stage of human
events.Historically speaking,the Revolution’s genesis,course,and conclusion are
well known and need no recounting here,yet they nonetheless remain an intrigu-
ing topic ofscholarly research and wellsprings ofenlightenment and inspiration.
The book you hold is designed to highlight the military facets surrounding this
conflict,with extensive coverage granted to the leading players involved and several
ofthe more significant battles.Many lesser lights,including militia leaders,indi-
vidual soldiers and scouts,Loyalists,and Native Americans—figures usually on the
periphery ofmilitary concerns—are also present,to lend added breadth to its con-
tent.But,as a reference work,I cast a large net intellectually and also extended cov-
erage to select social, political, and diplomatic considerations, such as treaties,
African Americans,and women.In this manner,the totality ofthe Revolutionary
War,1763–83,with its rich tapestry ofcausation,people,and events,can be inves-
tigated with questions answered and inquiries directed.But,more than anything
else,I proffer it as an intellectual counterweight to the egregious misconceptions and
contrived villainies depicted in movies such as The Patriot (2000). Thoroughly
researched and painstakingly objective,the Revolutionary War Almanacportrays
the military equations of both sides—all sides—in a more accurate and,hence,
truthful light.
In essaying this task I chose a relatively conventional format oftwo distinct but
integral parts.The first consists ofa near-daily almanac ofhappenings.Subject con-
tent varies as to the events recorded,but where more than one occurrence is listed
on a given day, the invariable order is politics/diplomacy, North, South, West,
IV
Introduction v
Caribbean,and,finally,naval.The second part ofthis book contains an alphabeti-
cal listing of368 topical essays,each ranging in length from 500 to 2,000 words.All
entries are uniform in style and consist ofa title,dates,position,text,and bibliog-
raphy.Cross-references,where relevant,are indicated by small capital letters.Biogra-
phies are specifically written to provide useful background information such as birth
and death dates,background and education,followed by discussion ofwartime con-
tributions and a summation ofpostwar activities.Historical events such as acts of
Congress and Parliament,or military battles,present background information for
greater context,a main descriptive body,and usually a briefsummary ofsignificance.
As noted previously,this is a military almanac thematically,and the bulk ofthe con-
tents addresses army and naval issues as they impacted events from 1775 to 1783.
However,important legislation such as the Stamp Act,nonmilitary occurrences like
the “battle”ofGolden Hill,and major political activities such as committees ofcor-
respondence are also present.
Revolutionary War almanacs are abundant on library shelves,but most are out
ofdate and usually lack bibliographical citations for further inquiry.Where refer-
ences do exist they invariably consist ofbooks and periodical articles that are them-
selves decidedly dated.In contrast,I feel it incumbent as a reference-book author
to assist prospective users by citing only the very latest scholarship available—since
older materials are usually listed in their bibliographies anyway.I achieved this
through extensive topical searches ofthe Library ofCongress and WorldCat Web
sites,along with forays through numerous periodical databases available at any col-
lege library.Inquiring minds are thereby exposed to relevant books and articles,
along with varied sources such as master’s theses and doctoral dissertations.Read-
ers thus have the fullest and most recent intellectual discourse on any given subject
at their disposal.Furthermore,I append a detailed bibliography ofthe very latest
Revolutionary War publications,2000–05,with materials that would not logically
fit elsewhere,to supplement literature already cited in the essays.These two compi-
lations,mutually exclusive,very much render this tome a reference source for 21st-
century scholars.
Another distinctive feature ofthis almanac is its emphasis on proper visuals.The
library market is replete with reference titles that perennially utilize worn-out wood-
block engravings (book illustrations) from the 19th century.These materials,while
significant in their day,look dated and suggest a lack ofearnestness on behalfof
book designers.To counter such a pervasive malaise,no effort was spared in comb-
ing the great picture libraries ofEngland,Scotland,Canada,and the United States
to secure requisite portraits and paintings.The result is a stunning survey ofcon-
temporary military and naval uniforms,along with their intrinsic artistic technique.
For devotees ofBritish military history,this is also the first Revolutionary War book
where portraits ofimportant leaders such as Alexander Leslie,Hugh Percy,Francis
Rawdon,and Alexander Stewart appear together in one volume.The same princi-
ple applies to traditionally neglected Revolutionary War portraiture,such as naval
leaders,the French,and Native Americans,where possible.Simply perusing the pages
treats even untutored eyes to splendid portraits by Gainsborough,Reynolds,Peale,
Stuart,and other contemporary masters.Collectively,they render an otherwise dour
vi Revolutionary War Almanac
reference source appealing and interesting simply by browsing through.This empha-
sis on military art is the facet ofmy work that I find most satisfying.
The Revolutionary War Almanacwill go far in promoting comprehension ofthe
numerous personalities and complex variables inherent in so wide-ranging a con-
flict.Great lengths were taken to afford users the most complete military coverage
possible,combined with the latest scholarship and simply sumptuous illustrations.
There has never been a military almanac like it on this conflict anywhere and,hence,
it resides in a class by itself.I extend thanks to my editor,Owen Lancer,for suggest-
ing the title to me.Arduous in conception and exacting in execution,this book
proved both a challenge to compile and a learning experience to write;I am certainly
a better historian because ofit.
—John C.Fredriksen,Ph.D.
C
o H RONOLOGY
1763
February 10
DIPLOMACY:The Treaty of Paris is signed in Paris,France,concluding the Seven
Years’War and its New World corollary,the French and Indian War.Victorious Great
Britain acquires all ofCanada,in addition to Florida and the Caribbean islands of
Tobago,Dominica,Grenada,and St.Vincent.Spain,under a separate arrangement,
receives New Orleans and all lands west ofthe Mississippi River,in addition to Cuba
and the Philippines.However,Britain’s fiscal ability to garrison and administer such
far-flung gains is compromised by national debts approaching £130,000,000.It falls
upon Chancellor ofthe Exchequer George Grenville to seek previously untapped
revenues and defray the cost ofgoverning these newest acquisitions.Unknown at
the time,removal ofthe French threat to North America also triggers a profound
reevaluation ofcolonial perceptions toward Great Britain,from that ofprotector
and benefactor to oppressor.
April 27
WEST:A gathering ofdisaffected Ottawa,Ojibway,and Pottawatomie chiefs con-
fers near Detroit to protest English encroachment on their lands,and a loose mili-
tary confederation is formed under the aegis ofOttawa chiefPontiac.The tribes
eventually adopt his plan for a wide-ranging,simultaneous assault on British forts
along the frontier.
May 7
WEST:ChiefPontiac leads a large-scale uprising against British-held Detroit but fails
to capture the fort.A lengthy and costly siege ensues until reliefforces arrive months
later.This act also signals the beginning ofwhat the English come to regard as “Pon-
tiac’s Conspiracy.”The campaign is initially highly successful and comes close to
eliminating Britain’s presence in the Old Northwest.
June 2
WEST:A large throng ofIndians stage a lacrosse game outside Fort Michilimackinac,
Michigan,and entreat the British garrison to step outside and watch.At a given sig-
nal the warriors arm themselves with hidden weapons,rush the fort,and massacre
the garrison.
August 4–6
WEST:Pontiac,having handily defeated a British force pressing for the reliefofFort
Pitt,attacks another column commanded by Colonel Henry Bouquet at Bushy Run.
1
2 Revolutionary War Almanac 1764
The Indians are driven offby a determined bayonet charge and the fort is success-
fully relieved.Pontiac’s rebellion,which commenced with impressive coordination
and devastating results,begins unraveling.
October 7
POLITICS:To circumvent future Indian hostility,King George III signs the Procla-
mation of1763 forbidding colonial settlements west ofa demarcation line drawn
along the Appalachian Mountains.Moreover,future land grants and surveying activ-
ities are expressly outlawed.Settlers already established west ofthat line are supposed
to withdraw back to British territory.These measures are evoked to placate Native
Americans and preclude the outbreak offuture hostility.But,as a sop to future colo-
nial expansion,the new colonies ofQuebec and East and West Florida are also orga-
nized.Many colonials nonetheless regard the act as an arbitrary obstacle to westward
expansion and resent imperial interference.
October 30
WEST:Pontiac,abandoned by his Pottawatomie,Ojibway,and Wyandot allies,aban-
dons the siege ofDetroit and withdraws his Ottawa clansmen to the Miami River.
November 16
NORTH:General Thomas Gage,a distinguished veteran ofthe French and Indian
War,is appointed commander in chiefofBritish forces in North America,with head-
quarters at New York.
December 2
POLITICS:In a major shift ofterritorial policy,the British government instructs colo-
nial governors to first acquire approval before designating land grants in or near
Indian-held regions.
1764
April 5
POLITICS:Parliament passes the American Revenue Act,better known as the Sugar
Act,the first measure intended to levy revenues from the colonies.Henceforth,duties
are doubled on sugar,wine,coffee,textiles,and other imported commodities.This
expedient is expected to raise £200,000 per year and help subsidize the maintenance
ofarmy garrisons on the western frontier.To better ensure enforcement ofthe Nav-
igation Acts and suppression ofwidespread smuggling,the act also authorizes the dis-
patching ofcustoms agents and collectors.This legislation marks a shift in relations
with the homeland from strictly commercial to increasingly revenue-oriented.Worse,
from colonial perspectives,the measure transfers legal matters from civil courts to
the Vice-Admiralty courts in Halifax,Nova Scotia,thereby negating time-honored
traditions oftrial by jury.
April 19
POLITICS:Parliament authorizes the Currency Act,through which all colonies are
forbidden from issuing paper money.This was enacted to control the inflationary
tendencies associated with such tender,and it assuages British creditor fears ofbeing
1765 Chronology 3
paid with depreciated script.Colonists,however,resent the destabilizing effect and
arbitrary hardships it inflicts on domestic commercial activity.
May 24
NORTH:James Otis advances the concept of“taxation without representation”dur-
ing a protest in a Boston town meeting and urges a united colonial response to
denounce it.
June 12
NORTH:The Massachusetts General Court establishes a committee ofcorrespon-
dence to coordinate grievances over the Sugar Act with other colonies.
July 23
NORTH:James Otis publishes The Rights ofthe British Colonies Asserted and Proved,
a polemic against the concept oftaxation without representation,and urges local
merchants to initiate boycotts ofEnglish goods.
November 17
WEST:ChiefPontiac concludes his rebellion by surrendering to British forces near
the Muskingum River,Ohio.
1765
February 5
DIPLOMACY:Benjamin Franklin and other colonial agents meet in London to protest
the impending stamp tax before Prime Minister George Grenville.They are cordially
received but otherwise ignored.
March 22
POLITICS:The Stamp Act,whose provisions will be enacted as law on November 1,
is authorized by King George III.This statute imposes fees on such widely varied
items as legal documents,newspapers,and almanacs,along with gambling imped-
imenta like playing cards and dice.Said items are required to bear an official stamp
signifying that the tax has been paid.Again,all revenues accrued will defray up to
one-third the cost ofgarrisoning and protecting the colonies.It also authorizes vio-
lators ofthe act to appear before juryless Admiralty courts.Thus,for the first time
in 150 years,Parliament imposes a direct levy upon its North American colonies.
Moreover,said revenues will not be paid to local legislatures but directly to English
coffers.Unforeseen at the time,this action will trigger unprecedented and unified
resistance from a broad spectrum ofmerchants,lawyers,publishers,land owners,
and shipbuilders throughout the colonies.
March 24
POLITICS:The Quartering Act,requested by General Thomas Gage to assist the gar-
risoning and provisioning of British troops,is approved by Parliament.The law
mandates that,in the absence ofbarracks,the colonial legislatures must subsidize
shelter and sustenance for British soldiers over a two-year period.Fixed prices are
also stipulated for provisions and services provided to the troops.