'RELIGION AND THE PERPETUATION OF 'TRADITION* AMONG POGORO CATHOLICS

258 Pages·2014·8.47 MB·English

THE CONSTRUCTION OF ‘RELIGION1
AND THE PERPETUATION OF ‘TRADITION*
AMONG POGORO CATHOLICS, SOUTHERN TANZANIA
Maia Green
Submitted for the Degree of PhD
London School of Economics and Political Science
May 1993
UMI Number: U062664
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Abstract
This thesis is an ethnographic account of contemporary religious practice among a Bantu
agricultural people in Southern Tanzania, the majority of whom are affiliated to the Roman
Catholic Church. It examines the dialectic between Christianity and what the Pogoro
consider to be ‘traditional’ practice as resulting in a locally defined Catholicism and in the
separation of formal, official Christianity from ‘traditional practice’. The thesis looks at how
the existence of an institutional religion, in this case Catholicism, defines some aspects of
local practice as traditional in opposition to it, while, at the same time, elements of
Christian practice have been adopted by the community in a non institutional way. The
thesis describes Pogoro Christianity, the role of the Church and Pogoro perceptions of it
and gives an account of that which they consider to belong to the realm of ‘tradition’.
Traditional practice is not in actuality unchanging, but any changes in traditional practice
must be legitimated by the authority of the dead and the spirits.
The first part of the thesis provides the historical and geographical background. This is
followed by a chapter on the Catholic Church in the area and official Catholic practice.
Local Catholic practice and perceptions of the church and Christianity are described and
accounted for. The next section looks at what is constituted as belonging to the realm of
‘tradition’. The core chapters in this section describe girls puberty rites, funerals and the
relationship with the dead. It is here that Catholic practice enters the realm of ‘tradition’.
A chapter examines the place of witchcraft eradication movements among the Pogoro, and
in East and central Africa, to demonstrate how ‘tradition’ can and does change, and to
provide a contrast with the position of Christianity among the Pogoro. This is dealt with in
the final chapter in which I argue that there are limits on the ‘traditionalisation’ of
Christianity among the Pogoro, and in other similar societies, and that these limits are to
some extent a function of the institutional nature of Christianity.
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CONTENTS
CONTENTS .............................................................................................................................. 5
PREFACE ................................................................................................................................... 9
One: INTRODUCTION . . 11
The Anthropology of Christianity .......................................................................... 11
The Anthropology of Christianity in Africa......................................................... 12
The Small Christian Community............................................................................ 16
The Majority Churches.............................................................................................. 17
The Catholic Church in Africa............................................................................... 18
Situating this Study ................................................................................................... 18
The Thesis.................................................................................................................... 20
Methodology............................................................................................................... 21
Language...................................................................................................................... 23
The Ethnography of Ulanga District..................................................................... 23
Two: THE SETTING............................................................................................................... 25
The District and its Peoples.................................................................................... 25
First Impressions....................................................................................................... 29
Economy and Agriculture......................................................................................... 30
Official Social Organisation and Settlement - Village, Household,
Parish............................................................................................................ 34
Party in Mahenge....................................................................................................... 35
Settlement Patterns and Government Policy ....................................................... 36
The Village................................................................................................................. 38
Residence, Household and Cooperation .............................................................. 40
Three: THE CATHOLIC CHURCH: CHRISTIANITY AND ‘CONVERSION’ ... 45
The First Missionaries.............................................................................................. 45
Evangelisation in Ulanga ......................................................................................... 47
The Swiss Capuchins ................................................................................................ 49
Mission Control Over Marriage ............................................................................. 50
The Economics of Mission...................................................................................... 52
Education ................................................................................ 53
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The Persistence of Mission....................................................................................... 55
The Priests: Businessmen and Ritual Specialists ............................................... 60
‘African Europeans’: The Africanisation of the Clergy...................................... 63
Religion as a Category.............................................................................................. 66
Four: POGORO CHRISTIANITY ....................................................................................... 69
Being Christian .......................................................................................................... 69
Baptism......................................................................................................................... 69
Services......................................................................................................................... 72
Lay Organisations ..................................................................................................... 74
The Catholic Divines ................................................................................................ 75
Mary, the Saints and the Dead............................................................................... 81
Five: KINSHIP AND THE CREATION OF RELATIONSHIP................................... 85
The Negotiability of Kinship.................................................................................... 85
Marriage Strategies and the Household................................................................ 86
The Marriage Process .............................................................................................. 89
Betrothal and Bridewealth ...................................................................................... 91
Church Marriage........................................................................................................ 93
The Constitution of Practical Marriage................................................................ 94
Church Weddings........................................................................................................ 99
Moving the Bride........................................................................................................ 99
Separation and Divorce ..............................................................................................100
Kinship and Descent ............................................................................ 101
Creating Paternity ........................................................................................................104
Descent and the D ead.................................................................................................113
Six: GIRLS’ PUBERTY RITES ..............................................................................................115
The Symbolic Basis of ‘Jadi’ .......................................................................................115
Fertility Rites and Initiation.......................................................................................116
Becoming a mwali........................................................................................................118
Men’s Work, Women’s W ork....................................................................................119
Female Fertility.............................................................................................................123
What Happens to the Mwali.......................................................................................124
The First Lot of ntanga, Medicine and Shaving....................................................125
Containing Female Fertility .......................................................................................129
Medicine.........................................................................................................................130
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The Washing of the Mwali and the Second Lot of ntanga .................................130
Washing the Mwali ............ 132
Fetching the Salt ..........................................................................................................133
Snatching the Ntanga...................................................................................................135
Summary Analysis of the Unvago.............................................................................136
Birth.............................................................................................................................. 136
Re-establishing Female Fertility ............................................................................ 137
Seven: FUNERAL.................................................................................................................... 139
Christian Practice..........................................................................................................139
The Bitterness of Mourning.......................................................................................140
Children’s Funerals ......................................................................................................143
Lugutu as a Second Death to Begin the Funeral ..................................................144
At the House Awaiting the Burial.............................................................................146
Defining the Bereaved.................................................................................................149
Preparing for Burial............................................................................ 149
The Burial.......................................................................................................................152
The Gradual Removal of Death................................................................................152
Shaving the Bereaved...................................................................................................153
The First Child to D ie.................................................................................................157
The Burial of the Shroud Strips ................................................................................158
Eight: TAMBIKO AND POSSESSION..................................................................................163
The Spirits of the Dead ..............................................................................................164
Toa Tatu.........................................................................................................................166
Masses for the Dead ...................................................................................................168
The End of the Funeral..............................................................................................170
Beer to End the Funeral ............................................................................................172
The Vigil.........................................................................................................................174
Offerings to the Dead and the Spirits Associated With Territory .....................176
The Territorial Shrines.................................................................................................179
Family Level Tambiko.................................................................................................184
Affliction.........................................................................................................................185
Women and the Ancestors.........................................................................................187
Affliction, Divination and Possession........................................................................189
‘Tradition’ and Descent ..............................................................................................192
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Nine: WITCHCRAFT ............................................................................ 193
Witchcraft and Medicines............................................................................................194
Witchcraft Attacks and Attacks on Witches............................................................196
Catching a W itch...........................................................................................................200
The Elite’s Attitude to Witchcraft.............................................................................203
Current Witchcraft Suppression Practice: At the ‘Grandmother’s Place .... 204
The Logic of Shaving...................................................................................................211
Ten: KUNYOLEWA IN ULANGA AND THE TRANSFORMATION OF
TRADITION..................................................................................................................215
Past Practice ..................................................................................................................215
Government Policy and Anti-Witchcraft Practice....................................................217
Witchcraft as ‘Tradition’ ..............................................................................................219
Witchcraft and the Church.........................................................................................221
Eleven: CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................225
‘Religion’ and ‘Tradition’: The Implications of the Two Systems.......................226
The Position of the Church .......................................................................................233
Future Trends...............................................................................................................236
BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................................239
APPENDIX 1 - MAPS...............................................................................................................247
Map 1: Tanzania-Administrative Districts ..............................................................248
Map 2: The Distribution of Peoples in Mainland Tanzania.................................249
Map 3: Map of Mahenge Diocese with the Founding Dates of Parishes . . . 250
APPENDIX 2 - TABLES...........................................................................................................251
Table 1: Religious Affiliation by Year, Kwiro Parish...........................................252
Table 2: Personnel of the Church by Year, Kwiro Parish...................................252
Table 3: Catholic Sacraments by Year, Kwiro Parish...........................................253
Table 4: Comparative Data for some Parishes, 1990 ........................................ 254
Table 5: Masses Ordered at Kwiro, 1958-90 ....................................................... 255
Table 6: Baptsims and Survival Beyond Two Months of Baptism 1910-
1960, Kwiro Parish .......................................................................................256
Table 7: Population of Ulanga District by Sex, Age and Division....................257
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PREFACE
This study is based on twentyone months of fieldwork in Ulanga District, Tanzania, with
some additional research at the Tanzania National Archives and the University of Dar es
Salaam. The research was carried out between November 1989 and July 1991. It was funded
by the Economic and Social Research Council of the United Kingdom and the University
of London’s Central Research Fund. I am grateful to both organisations.
I was helped by many people, both here and in Tanzania. Without Sam Maghimbi and
Odhiambo Anacleti I would never have chosen Mahenge as a site for research. Rev Fr
Aylward Shorter assisted me in making contact with the Church authorities in Tanzania.
They in turn helped me to secure research permission and with transport and
accommodation in the initial stages. I particularly wish to acknowledge the assistance of the
Most Rev Patrick Iteka, the Bishop of Mahenge Diocese for his support, and Msgr C Mdai
for his advice and practical help. I am grateful to the personnel of the Diocese for assisting
me in my work, for allowing me access to records and for the time they took to explain
things to me and to make things easier.
In Dar es Salaam I am indebted to Vincent Kalinjuma and Clement Rweramira of Caritas,
and to Mrs Ligunda and Mrs Lyarru at the Research Commission for facilitating the
renewal of my permit with the minimum of hassle. I was also helped by the DAO of
Ulanga District, Ndugu H Tendeka, and wish to acknowledge his assistance. The staff of
the Mahenge Boma and of the Office of Development and Social Welfare generously gave
of their time and information and allowed me access to District files. Leonarda Choma
found me a place to live, John Mwanamilembi taught me Kiswahili and Martin Malekero
taught me Kipogoro. All took an interest in my work and all contributed substantially.
Without these people even contemplating doing the research would not have been possible.
I must also convey my gratitude to the Chairman of Ihowanja village for his hospitality and
interest, and to Bibi Kalembwana and her staff for their cooperation. At Ilonga I received
support from the Katibu Kata, Binti Hakira and Chief Mponda, with both of whom I had
valuable discussions.
In and around Mahenge people welcomed me with overwhelming kindness and shared their
food and conversation with me. They fully involved themselves in the research endeavour,
and succeeded in making me feel at home among them. I wish to thank the especially
people of Nawenge, Makanga, Sangusangu, Chikuti, Mbagula, Mdindo, Kisewe, Ilonga and
Ihowanja. I owe the most, however, to those among whom I lived and with whom I spent
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