Table Of ContentFM-Ellis-45685:FM-Ellis-45685 7/16/2008 6:15 PM Page ii
TothelateDr.AlbertEllis,whowasoftenacontroversialiconoclastbutalways
agenuinegenius.Hewasavisionaryinpsychology,psychotherapy,andhumansexuality.
Hisinfluencehasinsinuateditselfintoeveryaspectofmodernclinicalpsychology—asitshould.
—M.A.&L.D.A.
Tomylateparents,Mr.BenAbramsandMs.LillyAbrams,whosepoverty
precludedsecondaryeducationsbutwhowereabletoinspireapassionforitnonetheless.
—M.A.
Tomylateparents,Dr.EdithPalfiDengelegiand
Dr.TiberiusDengelegi,whoemergedfrom AuschwitzandaRussianworkcampto
becomephysiciansandlovingparents,andsetanexampletoallwhofaceadversity.
—L.D.A.
Toourdaughters,Ms.DaxAbramsandMs.KiraAbrams,
whosegoodbehaviorallowedtheirparentstocontributetothiswork.
—M.A.&L.D.A.
FM-Ellis-45685:FM-Ellis-45685 7/16/2008 6:15 PM Page iii
P T
ersonality heories
Critical Perspectives
Albert Ellis
Albert EllisInstitute
Mike Abrams
WilliamPaterson UniversityandAlbert EllisInstitute
with Lidia D. Abrams
Resolve Community CounselingCenter
with contributions by Alexander Nussbaum, Saint John’s University
and
Rebecca J. Frey, Yale University
FM-Ellis-45685:FM-Ellis-45685 7/16/2008 6:16 PM Page iv
Copyright©2009bySagePublications,Inc.
Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthisbookmaybereproducedorutilizedinanyformorbyanymeans,
electronicormechanical,includingphotocopying,recording,orbyanyinformationstorageandretrieval
system,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.
Forinformation:
SAGEPublications,Inc. SAGEPublicationsIndiaPvt.Ltd.
2455TellerRoad B1/I1MohanCooperativeIndustrialArea
ThousandOaks,California91320 MathuraRoad,NewDelhi110044
E-mail:[email protected] India
SAGEPublicationsLtd. SAGEPublicationsAsia-PacificPteLtd
1Oliver’sYard 33PekinStreet#02-01
55CityRoad FarEastSquare
LondonEC1Y1SP Singapore048763
UnitedKingdom
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
Thisbookisprintedonacid-freepaper.
08 09 10 11 12 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
AcquisitionsEditor: KassieGraves
EditorialAssistant: VeronicaK.Novak
ProductionEditor: CatherineM.Chilton
CopyEditor: JacquelineA.Tasch
Typesetter: C&MDigitals(P)Ltd.
Proofreader: DorisHus
Indexer: HydeParkPublishingServicesLLC
CoverDesigner: CandiceHarman
MarketingManager: CarmelSchrire
FM-Ellis-45685:FM-Ellis-45685 7/16/2008 6:16 PM Page v
Contents
Introduction xv
1.TheStudyofPersonality:Introduction 1
TheoriesofPersonality 3
Plato 3
Aristotle 3
Descartes 4
Machiavelli 4
TheMakingofaTheory 5
Personality:AFuzzySet 9
NormalandPathologicalPersonalities 11
SchoolsandModelsofPersonality 12
PersonalityAssessment 15
Traits,Typologies,andCharacter 17
TheRationalEmotiveBehavioralPerspective 18
ChapterSummary 22
2.HistoricalPerspectivesonPersonality 25
Psychology:ADisciplineWithSubdivisions 27
TheBirthofPsychology 27
PersonalityTheoryTimeline 31
Late1880s–1900 31
1901–1920 32
1921–1940 33
1941–1960 33
1961–1980 34
1981–2000+ 35
SchoolsofThoughtinPsychology 36
StructuralPsychology 36
FunctionalPsychology 37
Empiricism/Associationism 37
Psychoanalysis:TheFirstComprehensiveModelofPersonality 38
Behaviorism 42
GestaltPsychology 43
CognitivePsychology 43
RationalEmotiveBehavioralTherapyandCognitiveBehaviorism 48
ChapterSummary 51
FM-Ellis-45685:FM-Ellis-45685 7/16/2008 6:16 PM Page vi
3.PersonalityResearch 53
TheScientificMethod 54
TheoreticalResearchandPersonality 56
Reliability 56
Validity 58
ReplicationandVerification 61
ApproachestotheStudyofPersonality 62
TrueExperiments 62
Quasi-experiments 63
CorrelationalStudies 64
CaseandEpidemiologicalStudies 65
PersonalityandPsychometricTests 67
ObjectivePersonalityMeasures 67
ProjectivePersonalityMeasures 70
EthicsinPersonalityResearch 75
TheMilgramStudy 75
TheSchachter-SingerExperiment 77
Walster’sExperimentWithSelf-Esteem 78
ChapterSummary 80
4.FreudandtheDynamicUnconscious 81
Psychoanalysis:TheFirstComprehensiveTheoryofthePsyche 81
TheBeginning 82
Freud’sEarlyCareer 82
CollaborationWithBreuerandtheBeginningsofPsychoanalysis 84
BriefOverviewofFreudianTheory 84
ConsciousandUnconscious 85
Freud’sTopologicalandPathologicalModel 86
ShiftingBoundaries 87
Freud’sStructuralModel 88
TheId 88
TheEgo 89
TheSuperego 90
Freud’sViewofAnxiety 95
MechanismsofEgoDefense 98
Repression 98
Regression 99
Projection 100
Introjection 100
Intellectualization 101
Rationalization 101
ReactionFormation 101
Sublimation 102
Freud’sPsychosexualStagesofDevelopment 103
OralPhase 104
AnalPhase 105
FM-Ellis-45685:FM-Ellis-45685 7/16/2008 6:16 PM Page vii
PhallicPhase 106
Latency 108
GenitalPhase 109
ChapterSummary 109
5.PsychoanalysisinTheoryandPractice 111
Freud’sConceptofPersonalityTypes 111
OralPersonalities 112
AnalPersonalities 113
PhallicPersonalities 113
GenitalPersonalities 114
PsychoanalyticNosology 115
PsychoanalyticPsychotherapy 117
FirstPhase:EstablishingtheTherapeuticAlliance 118
SecondPhase:AnalyzingtheResistance 119
ThirdPhase:AnalyzingtheTransference 119
LateStagesofPsychoanalysis 121
RisksofPsychoanalysis 121
CritiquesofFreud’sTheories 122
IsItScience? 122
ChallengingFreud’sModel 123
ImplicitLearning 125
NonconsciousProcesses 127
TheTriuneBrain 129
ANetworkofModules 132
ReviewingtheConceptofRepression 135
ChallengetoPsychosexualStages 136
TheOedipalComplexExamined 137
ChapterSummary 139
6.Freud’sFollowers 141
CarlGustavJung 142
EarlyCareer 143
Mandalas 145
ConceptsofPersonalityStructure 146
CentralArchetypes 148
JungianPsychotherapy 151
SynchronicityandtheNuminosum 153
Jung’sLegacy 155
ExperimentalTesting 155
AlfredAdler 156
Theories 159
TheSignificanceofBirthOrder 161
ConceptofNeurosis 161
AdlerianPsychotherapy 162
ChapterSummary 164
FM-Ellis-45685:FM-Ellis-45685 7/16/2008 6:16 PM Page viii
7.PsychiatricandMedicalModels 165
MentalIllnessinWesternMedicine 166
ClassicalAntiquity 166
TheMiddleAgesandtheEarlyModernPeriod 167
TheEnlightenmentandtheEarlyNineteenthCentury 169
DiagnosticClassificationofMentalDisorders 171
PhysicalTreatmentsforMentalIllness 174
ShockTreatments 174
Psychosurgery 176
PersonalityandBodyType 179
Kretschmer’sBiotypology 179
Sheldon’sSomatotypes 180
ChallengestotheMedicalModel 182
ContemporaryAmericanPsychiatricNosology:
TheDiagnosticandStatisticalManual 183
TheRoadtoDSM-I(1952) 183
DSM-II(1968) 186
DSM-III(1980)andDSM-III-R(1987) 187
DSM-IV(1994)andDSM-IV-TR(2000) 188
ChapterSummary 193
8.TheNeo-Freudians 195
BreakingAwayFromFreud 196
BasicConceptsofEgoPsychology 196
KarenHorney 197
Career 197
TheoryofPersonality 198
HarryStackSullivan 202
InterpersonalTheoryofPsychiatry 203
TheoryofCognition 204
ErikHomburgerErikson 205
EarlyYears 205
LaterCareer 206
TheoryofHumanIdentityFormation 206
PsychosocialStages 207
HeinzKohut 208
CultureandtheUnconscious 211
ErichFromm 211
FreedomandPsychologicalConflicts 212
BasicHumanNeeds 213
CharacterOrientations 213
ApproachtoTherapy 214
MelanieKlein 214
PostwarBritishObjectRelationsTheorists 215
OttoKernberg 216
ChapterSummary 217
FM-Ellis-45685:FM-Ellis-45685 7/16/2008 6:16 PM Page ix
9.PersonalityandTraits 219
PreliminaryDefinitions 220
TraitsandAttitudes 220
DoTraitsExist? 221
ThePerson/SituationDebate 222
AreTraitsandBehaviortheSame? 224
InteractionismandSituationChoice 225
GordonW.Allport 226
TheMaturePersonality 226
IdiographicResearch 227
TheProprium 228
FunctionalAutonomy 229
RaymondBernardCattell 229
EarlyCareer 229
FactorAnalysis 230
TheoryofPersonality 231
ResearchMethods 232
The16PFQuestionnaire 232
Contributions 233
HansEysenck 234
TheBiologicalBasisofEysenck’sFactors 235
TheFive-FactorTheory 236
TheBigFiveandCross-CulturalEvidence 239
BiologicalBasisofTraits 240
ChapterSummary 241
10.BehavioristViewsofPersonality 243
IvanPetrovichPavlov 246
ClassicalConditioning 246
EdwardL.Thorndike 248
TheLawofEffect 248
TheLawofExercise 249
JohnB.Watson 249
EarlyCareer 249
ClinicalParadigm 252
TheLittleAlbertExperiment 253
TheoryofPersonality 255
ClarkL.Hull 260
BurrhusFrederic(B.F.)Skinner 261
Operants,Respondents,andReinforcers 262
ReinforcersandPunishments 262
SchedulesofReinforcement 264
DownfallofRadicalBehaviorism:Language 269
Skinner’sViewofPersonality 272
JohnDollardandNealE.Miller 275
LearningTheory 276
Frustration-AggressionHypothesis 279
FM-Ellis-45685:FM-Ellis-45685 7/16/2008 6:16 PM Page x
ConflictsandGradients 280
TheStupidity-MiserySyndromeandNeurosis 282
PersonalityTheory 283
ChapterSummary 284
11.HumanisticViewsofPersonality 287
HumanisticPsychology—A“ThirdForce” 288
AbrahamMaslow 289
HierarchyofNeeds 291
EarlyLifeandCareer 292
Self-Actualization 293
CritiquesofMaslow 297
GordonW.Allport 301
ExistentialPsychology 302
BinswangerandBoss 303
MajorConceptsinEuropeanExistentialPsychology 304
RolloMay 306
EarlyCareer 306
FourStages 307
MajorConceptsinMay’sThought 308
ExistentialismandtheQuestionofFreeWill 308
ChapterSummary 310
12.CarlRogersandHumanistPsychotherapy 313
EarlyCareer 313
MajorConceptsinRogers’sPsychology 316
PersonalityandPhenomenology 316
PhenomenalField,Self,andSelf-Concept 316
OrganismicValuingandConditionsofWorth 317
ActualizingTendenciesandSelf-Actualization 320
TheFullyFunctioningPerson 322
PrinciplesofRogerianPsychotherapy 323
ConditionsforPsychotherapeuticChange 324
TheProcessofRogerianPsychotherapy 326
TheTherapist’sAttitudes 327
TherapeuticGoals 328
InteractionsinPerson-CenteredTherapy 328
RogersandPersonalityTheory 333
ResearchinandCritiquesofRogers’sWork 334
ChapterSummary 338
13.EarlyCognitiveViewsofPersonality 341
TheGestaltPsychologists 342
GestaltPsychologyandGestaltTherapy 342
Isomorphism 343
OpticalIllusions 344
LawsofSensoryOrganization 345
