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S M I T H S O N I A N
NATURAL
THE ULTIMATE VISUAL GUIDE TO EVERYTHING ON EARTH
history
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FOREWORD 6
ABOUT THIS BOOK 8
LIVING EARTH MINERALS, MICROSCOPIC PLANTS
ROCKS, AND LIFE
A living planet 12 MOSSES 108
FOSSILS
Active Earth 14
ARCHAEA AND BACTERIA 90 LIVERWORTS 110
Changing climates 16
Habitats for life 18 MINERALS 38 PROTISTS 94 HORNWORTS 111
Human impact 20 ROCKS 62 Amoebas and relatives 96 LYCOPHYTES 111
Origins of life 22 Flagellates 97
Evolution and diversity 24 FOSSILS 74 Rhizarians 98 FERNS AND RELATIVES 112
Evolution in progress 26 Alveolates 100
CYCADS, GINKGOS,
Classification 28 Heterokonts 101
AND GNETOPHYTES 116
Animal genealogy 30 Red algae 103
Tree of life 32 Green algae 105 CONIFERS 118
Stoneworts and relatives 105
FLOWERING PLANTS 122
Basal angiosperms 124
Magnoliids 128
Monocots 130
Eudicots 150
c o n t e n t s
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of the copyright owner.
senisoern iaorrt e eddiittoorr G Inilal PStitrtasd ins FIRST EDITION DK INDIA Published in Great Britain by Dorling Kindersley Limited
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managing editor Angeles Gavira Guerrero project editor Victoria Wiggins art director Shefali Upadhyay is available from the Library of Congress.
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Dean Morris, Amy Orsborne,
DK INDIA Steve Woosnam-Savage This American Edition, 2021
project editor Tina Jindal special photography Gary Ombler First American Edition, 2010 www.dk.com
senior art editor Mahua Mandal picture research Neil Fletcher, Published in the United States by DK Publishing
editor Nidhilekha Mathur Peter Cross, Julia Harris-Voss, Sarah Hopper, 1450 Broadway, Suite 801, New York, NY 10018
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FOREWORD 6
ABOUT THIS BOOK 8
FISHES 324 Turacos 464
Jawless fishes 326 Hoatzin 465
Cartilaginous fishes 327 Cuckoos 465
Ray-finned fishes 334 Owls 467
Lobe-finned fishes 353 Mesites 470
Nightjars 471
AMPHIBIANS 354 Hummingbirds and swifts 473
Frogs and toads 356 Trogons 476
Caecilians 369 Mousebirds 476
Salamanders and newts 370 Kingfishers and relatives 477
Cuckoo-roller 479
REPTILES 374
Hornbills, hoopoes, and
Turtles and tortoises 376
wood hoopoes 482
Tuatara 383
Woodpeckers and toucans 483
Lizards 384
Seriemas 487
Amphisbaenians 393
Passerines 488
Snakes 394
LIVING EARTH MINERALS, MICROSCOPIC PLANTS FUNGI ANIMALS Crocodiles and alligators 404
MAMMALS 506
ROCKS, AND LIFE Egg-laying mammals 508
BIRDS 408
A living planet 12 MOSSES 108 MUSHROOMS 212 INVERTEBRATES 250 Pouched mammals 509
Active Earth 14 FOSSILS Sponges 252 Tinamous 410 Sengis 518
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Classification 28 Heterokonts 101 AND GNETOPHYTES 116 Arachnids 264 Grebes 427 Rabbits, hares, and pikas 529
Animal genealogy 30 Red algae 103 Sea spiders 270 Flamingos 428 Rodents 533
Tree of life 32 Green algae 105 CONIFERS 118 Horseshoe crabs 270 Storks 429 Tree shrews 543
Ibises, bitterns, herons,
Stoneworts and relatives 105 BFLaOsaWl aEnRgIioNsGp ePrLmAsN TS 112242 CInrsuescttasc eans 227781 C oarnmd oprealnictasn, sg annets, 430 CProilmugaotes s 554434
Magnoliids 128 RBribyboozona wnso rms 330044 and relatives 433 BHaetds gehogs, moles, and relatives 557620
Monocots 130 Lampshells 305 Tropicbirds 433 Pangolins 573
Eudicots 150 Mollusks 305 Birds of prey 434 Carnivores 574
Bivalves 306 Falcons and caracaras 441 Odd-toed ungulates 602
Gastropods 308 Bustards 442 Even-toed ungulates 608
c o n t e n t s Cephalopods 313 Cranes, rails, and relatives 443 Whales, porpoises, and dolphins 628
Chitons 317 Kagu and sunbittern 445
Tusk shells 317 Waders, gulls, and auks 448
Echinoderms 318 Sandgrouse 456 GLOSSARY 634
Pigeons and doves 457 INDEX 638
CHORDATES 322 Parrots and cockatoos 460 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 663
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F O R E W O R D
When I was a boy, I would visit the local public library and spend
as long as I was allowed looking at science and reference books.
The books that especially enthralled me were the forerunners of
this book. Packed with color diagrams, images of exotic species,
and faraway places, coupled with informative text, they were the
siren call for a lifetime of studying and teaching. The natural world
around me was then an unknown entity and I wanted to learn
about all of it. It is a very human desire to learn, but nobody
knows which bit of biology they will be most attracted to and I
went on to pick the largest and most diverse animal group of all.
If I were to live a lifetime of lifetimes, I would never know
everything there is to know about insects.
No book could ever be a comprehensive study of Earth’s extant
life forms, which incidentally comprise only one percent of those
that have ever lived. For that you would need a library of hefty
tomes. What you have in your hands is much more serviceable. It
is a clear roadmap to guide you on a journey that will take you
from the steaming forests of the tropics to the freezing cold of
the polar regions, and from mountain peaks to the depths of the
ocean. It is an abridged exploration of the products of a couple of
billion years of evolution that will show you some of the several
million ways of living on Earth.
It is relatively easy to write screeds of detailed information on
any topic you care to name, but this approach is not going to be
of use to anyone other than experts and it is unlikely to encourage
anyone else to study the living world. No, the real skill and the
very purpose of this book is to distil a vast body of natural history
knowledge amassed by countless researchers to provide an
authoritative, yet accessible, account.
There may come a time in the distant future when we are
able to venture elsewhere in our galaxy and beyond. Will we find
extraterrestrial life on a far distant rocky planet and if so, will it
be simple, single-celled organisms or complex creatures to rival
humans or humpbacked whales? To imagine that in the vastness
of the Cosmos, our inconsequential planet is the single, solitary
place where life has evolved—an unbelievable fluke of stellar
serendipity—seems vanishingly improbable. What is certain is
that we inhabit a planet of staggering complexity and breathtaking
beauty, and one that is constantly changing. What we must realize,
and quickly, is that we have no dominion over it but are simply
part of an immense community of interdependent species.
Newcomers to natural history will find themselves engrossed
and even specialists, steeped in the minutiae of one tiny part of
the tree of life, will value the majestically broad sweep of this
meticulously researched volume. If I could have my life all over
again, I’d start by reading this.
DR. GEORGE McGAVIN
Honorary Research Associate,
Oxford University Museum of Natural History
Senior Principal Research Fellow, Imperial College London
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A B O U T T H I S B O O K
The Natural History Book begins with a general introduction to life on
Earth: the geological foundations of life, the evolution of life forms, and how
for easy reference, visual
organisms are classified. The next five chapters form an extensive, accessible contents panels list the
subgroups within each section,
catalog of specimens—from minerals to mammals—interspersed with and the page number where
each subgroup can be found
fact-filled introductions to each group and in-depth feature profiles.
SECTION INTRODUCTION
Each chapter is divided into sections
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evolution over time. ANI agaonnrffodd tu haspueesrr ditvahiilnva peot dtssea ttruiholrles sea m6xu6irass stm s dt oioelmxdlitoaiiynnn aceyttveeiooadlrnv sE e eadavgr eitonnh. t.t hRthiesap tpt keilrieli lo edd liz3a8rd4s
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classiofinc aetaicohn ibnotxreosd duicstpiolany, PCHLAYSLSU M CHROERPTDIALTIAA Rswkieitnph wtkieiltreha tsoicnvae arlneladsp saporinem gae ptpiamrtocethese cbst oitvnheei c.l akyeenre odf epcMalailxrnrzlooa dhahcHntr ieaboadybocmid sttsit i teq apoladidnubhate sdnavibs sm isieybosn,r nuaaa atteat sn hue eknddesncei ,i aoits fftqnou rsebuyorsarue—t spesa,ttinc er chracahmseeles aeapa ssvhvdn.t e aaii Tdl rlvryee ueees svpra u fottrotobyllmiefuvtlp erseraoi os dclarl—plnaie mlitlddcilymyl sbpsit. zsoh bdeF arealoseretl nmldowas.d srisLsei ,enafe ri os zs aflnsr ooatapmaerunredkdengscse d.,ibtse a,yis in l. scanrllao34ikcg90eoa4st4doilress and
the current taxonomic ORDERS 4 aerceo sfyosutnedm i nre cpotiolelesr a treem impeproatreta cnltim boattehs .a sW pirtehdinat eoarcs h
hieragrrcohuyp— unthdee rl edvieslc uosfs itohne FAMILIES 92 Trperhpoertoe scdhtusec tlehl eoe udet m eogbf rgwy oaa tlfleorrow. Tmsh rdee epohtuyitldeersra ttloaioy enr. artsopannredtcg oaieeis s sope fasr r eoaeytr .hoe Me perpox aoscntrl utiamusrinevai elscslta.yi rcA nh o iefvmerobwnriev ilvsoa,orr rfegeesees, . dlbiizunatgr mdosna anany wd ide
is highlighted SPECIES 11,050 bSsooecmihaela. sApveltichoioersu ga hrae sn lsuodgligt aissrhuy awrnvdhe iirnveaaacst liovteh ewrhs eanre c ohoiglh, olyn ce
their preferred body temperature is reached by basking
or pressing against a warm rock, they can be very active.
Reproductive behavior can be complex, with males
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then lays eggs in an underground nest. All reptiles are
independent and self-feeding from birth, although some
crocodilians give parental care for two or more years.
Reptiles are exploited by humans for their skin or
as food. This, along with habitat loss, pollution, and
climate change, threatens the survival of many species.
debate boxes tackle scientific Rrtheegep umltaiotlere nbsi onmdgy os utdenim ftyop eatrhbaestoiurrr bbe .e hTheahavetiy oe rbn aetsorkg yi.n fliTppheer gs raenedn a t uflratttleeS nmEedaAy s hTaepUlpl,e RiasT rw LperElli m aIdNitaip vIteTe dbS ut Eot, LiwtEsi tMahq uEeaffiNticcT ileifnet.
controversies and taxonomic discussions
arising from new discoveries
a male of a female of
the species the species
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Neoks a.A et 385 46BIRDS • PARROTS AND COCKATOOS2 PrSoe.stRD sdhoAPs o iEenmmbrreDlAotyeac-pfcr kt-wrt:iaa Fehc yrwPiRAlaliuuaestnsffetisdN t e 31t p ftRa13whd5pa8 aa33cPac– –acrhmc eincr1A4irnieOmd6r op2o ntoR½a tiorc tet eem rRsriox Tn,aic tOc nit13lhsiohu46eteTsSie ssircsend m al y. AND COCiAtAKsh uT aemsgn UtsAre NrooemRauepeltibnQeoTahfe np,gUe r: htrwa POhoeaOsosesmtfnA i sIwP oeatot bauSptd aAuRfOParg saEr ialtrpiet torTna cnIenrq rsheuolpnitPrrN phaoyuddeoeuflcdoaSliAmito csuabi poCnrs:tc e aNhieb c aiseu PoRiasl,inEo efaik es.idernfestr lfl sRenrsS As ihydxtt lP pfteRoesm ahiaSpir tOfismsnastmgfoenrltai O arrPeraefP82tub timctTaolr mcantnxhA0 rli:sSiiAlom asar ndt41a o dl acPcoscEtt,d..R6c t0ad Rno m. r essg T u–-e–elufiIrdtnAaotoRtRl1e ehc4ttr tawnl8saorh7aeiKalOI. ½siocaf deiceekc NdtlwhEsrT mis reiidepse naGEnns ssae m p TeEcEwrieuDeeerrsais odt hpw aAeysa.s eraildallson o w bell14y87½ cm in gubA41rMnetu6a0rdhsly s oeihceAin-tTddnrmsibr St un hgSOaldpaPgaUeisliKieauonisc nlarctt kP lmPg eSEoonyrl f ri .oE u p t Dono:Ealpfetn oaRfoPs if .alg dnros iritysSr:AssrerBpgseh ie r PHroot du loseeot sitlsuttPeisafn wotasiIsta ptcitsw Aci.ahNrlnr t t l iaIoapisreiaduRtnInn lefbcse niam NiitdelasrilRAnesaaRdroos nn btswGcbgiourannOo ecipke arbnvesgsiatii reeptEtTneimPieea-r.rrcheit lrb dAtAaddaflind aoPaayoe als liutsisSslRk y srlao Prea em e iTanoa lnfdaRtsFrln fbycEat b:e iOg. ci, ejP iR fiibeerrt,sTcd rh rsNfic o tirihustsaoa alaRdsvmnas cb-ande Otil wr dxudAauiiSeisaahuplm .beeEi ppstAldtlieeeLuru r 13tpamLEcps2y0laha.iAa pir caerngirm tec teoskoa tsl s . 131/4 m ft AnHodYToBiAhtrsoohi Catsf ly htni:IsvhnR rdmPNieec aAEsw haaT.aif trlDturIiel:aHMtt lis naPdmds - r ceh lFs sAMuiasidiymfdRctcbe aCtrbaa raAOacuwteyAolcirlbC gnN iaWhp idetffioAsaTohna bffrWepc yiaEiecnktuscpyse25aDuiiMlteantn52aarsf rlB ttl––glrila rrioco.p2oo6cLoatsw3maa0ntleUs½ tws dcc smnE w shpiAfn oe-eai r:rMtsAcr aPth.ei 38h eN Os Aas54lesiaptr, rnDciC rtanantmegar rhA- ceasSoYi,iWes.uf d ll EAbynotawL ienamfregLodea- OtrtbcahiolWciuemlaeer. e deads n dl ong,28 0–re–1d02 t5ipan coi mlwehrfenaLeuSanoxlivC dkitbsyee Aiy pwponl b,olffaa hRd itfltltbA:liosmchl tolLP hr eaeffcCa sE ocrrffkwik oa.rr tT imm i cmutBnftbi eahiaabfbgrMara tce lraSl cce.ltauib i ziah.aadgIteAn iiwthkeoMhra leswr.eCdites ssn r73e ri ,ysnAh1 a9gx Betgo–na –liWhnslncLs3sgo8oi uo pA5seUh9afwt e i a mcsnmcEb m ioie-etAsFsmat mtBfRolbsySc:a Lp feOc o.cPgrz ArUoafAuorso N rm oecimrnrmErtefesTeomtPa -nnealaitC EiaHn t roscaofpltr,oi Dainin ecoaa:dEvstr salurpPthi eag-tA.nPraese seeiioo s vinA aDRlmt tgafoss t sfriRtmwtEea,ocoeh ncatrDRlraueiah esnldtp JtnlOs iAo arPs ntA dp m u e“13ooTAB amNf5u8arfroo R tzAsicpriArlDnhonmoirerr RvenietfaaAs13-aia dttmOat:2i029si Ys sio.Ptn 4½ ic naeTmnAgsm–cgr –ai2atni a 1nP8wti 1 sBa ajcA sicanarmo”ni atRn P pgdcSfllzdyoaecapiaea41wiAn rnauraulrev23/4aga.hg rrur ne–yrrSKPinrSieeoo–tsrrsa1dteT Ao s t etoa5E4oesf i l sm.ila½ntnp ennCecAEn ; scC y Vtaem ge owmTeiIsetaFcon a nI-dFiriaeof viarrfeNle nIrisireyw:zs:n betC gp Cs P oePgiN bii musts ntsrbEsePli hiesnraaibnata NtwA e ntlcy enetElegaodi eax TRgcndcGAue crtouri. gilmiiRiud Pneedfnla T caiadesgdAOacSnhtoezni eottieponniRT i.srs41Aoan rgs V 6nLo0Rnaaseim p i n igir.cEppnnO vemdreT yTcaaecr TgrhePmidicernmie soas btr ynt. yus . BIRDS • PARROTS AND COCKATOOS463
Unlike other macaws, this giant Brazilian have extensive splashes
behavior, and reproductive habits. puanldee rgpraayrt s epyaer-rroitn hga—s Aistrisam tfiainlcagiraa ltp opa arttahckahet eroetfsd .tuhcee dre tlaot eand of golden coloration.
10 in
6 in 6½–7 in 25 cm
15 cm 17–18 cm
SPECIES CATALOG 1474½–4–61 8c min 1219½ cm in red belly
Pictorial galleries profile some 5,000
MAROON-BELLIED
spspfeeecaciteiues,sr esahsr oeow fp eilnaacgceh td ho teno edg.ie sCtthilonescre tflioyvr er uevlsiasetufeuadll red tail acthcAois m nhapitgli iPhvGssehlyiR etfo dit:fAna PAmtcYesuflii rtlmsPii tgceAaieacrcnniR.i tdt Thr RasahaepiOicnesu fcThosiearsse slitess da, nt o LostvphmeeaYbotci EisArletidLgvs ps eaLb a apLOuifrrnoi:rOeW l roPsd nsVmtssms-i iE,sataC a t ltBpnllaOh leecfl IiArssiLRodst fTcLo—arDknaeAicsnaa.aRz t nUdauE nospnmDialairnke r deo ts ThwihhosA aaosgbbodRaiictltLfpaOuiaa:noOta lSPsrdl VllnYs oyoaiiEf vt-nsg teF SBdaarb.At WocIsihsrieRCdeed.m riaE DAcsfei rDodfnorleel imsc iaesar rd tr y paTrhroe tlBsa rfRrgoOemsWtP oAoNfi13f cra45-fei ––cNg:p1 3arPh4E7,os a½ tucCilthmp uitKin asso cEbfri oidDmrbad aueP iosnAtcluycRsu gRrrseO iennT -fogrreayst s ABtu UtPnhaRnitCsea yRcglsaooO nilnonfoWin a:le iniPaaIs rselrN ituebthGltsra aebtp cePiaavidndAetekaa rRoesg .fno AImentsK uaftoscsE raiEmwn Tss , YNEaestsLpicvfeLaeBecpO rritPeaefooWdlsA:t c poPhcR-egosaanCepivgAttreueHtri Kbalaseac iElstr cEitSiVddhoaE.sai bnRA TrelosiiOm frsi hinteNeh r diEisc Da, TtthMhsMeteimsi Ocy ockpinoNo fenllpry:oKe as Pnspit tstieaPa,it r taSlAo tr.b fao mRtArctee ioAmntdeno daeKa aeebr clrEiuahc rifEaulrgd Tosie sm a RPeplymaarPrtsorayi hmvtPrrfuheorA:rishion asP Runo espsf nripoA aattAerrt Ksra acfraprkcieetoElieidadsnneEs ,afgtt hTrsesaaeou ,lhs mci masohv f o e s t
comparison, while essential data its exploitation in the bird trade. structure in a tree cavity. watering holes. from Gambia to the Cape of Good Hope. faithful pair-bonds, unlike most birds. warmer parts of the US. communal structure. eastern S. America.
highlights unique and interesting
aspects of each organism.
UUSS__000088--000099__CCHH11__aabboouutt__tthhiiss__bbooookk..iinndddd 88 2255//0033//2211 22::3388 PPMM
A B O U T T H I S B O O K DATA
data sets display key size 4½–9½ ft (1.4–2.9 m)
MEASUREMENTS
details at a glance, habitat Forests, swamps, scrub thickets,
such as size, habitat, savanna, and rocky landscapes
distribution, and diet distribution India to China, Siberia, the Malay The approximate sizes of the organisms in this book are given in
The Natural History Book begins with a general introduction to life on
peninsula, and Sumatra data sets and size boxes. Below is a list of the dimensions used:
Earth: the geological foundations of life, the evolution of life forms, and how diet Mainly hoofed animals, such as deer and
for easy reference, visual
pigs; may also catch smaller mammals and birds MICROSCOPIC LIFE
organisms are classified. The next five chapters form an extensive, accessible contents panels list the FEATURE PROFILE Length
subgroups within each section, Zooming in on single specimens,
catalog of specimens—from minerals to mammals—interspersed with and the page number where
feature profiles use close-up PLANTS
each subgroup can be found
fact-filled introductions to each group and in-depth feature profiles. photographs to provide in-depth each feature includes a side Maximum height above ground, except for:
portraits of some of the world’s profile of the animal, plant, or fungus Height above water rushes
most spectacular species. Spread aquatic plants
SECTION INTRODUCTION FUNGI
Each chapter is divided into sections Width (of widest part), except for:
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is highlighted SPECIES 11,050 bSstoohroeec mpiihRrare leepa. sp srAspvreioenlftiecdghoriu oearrcsueg tdaga ivihr anbee sso n tlbsud oeadyglh i wgtt aaievssarmhiruyom prawr ne crvrdhaoae nictirn uvkebar,aae cets t h cliiosoevt yemrh eecwparalchsneh ex abenr,d ee wc vbohieytoirgh lbyh, m aolaysncak tclieienvs ge . Ftcoao rruaSen rtTtar ialsAgoccsletniaeBarwgdl’ss c A psalrNnieciyDen. e tB hStlreLaoedIuteChg- eEhdd etglhieevd em rc hetheatee k wk tiiletlheidnt eehgwa csbcelaiat.lwele d LLeennggtthh ooff schoelolln my o bllurysokzso, asnhselled gastropods
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climate change, threatens the survival of many species. nonslip pad
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a male of a female of MAMMALS
the species the species Adult body length, excluding tail, except for:
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BIRDS • PARROTS AND COCKATOOSBIRDS • PARROTS AND COCKATOOS446633 1320 icSshncisafanmosipaTap ci zrgescgmpe eAcohitV risvhemblome esiItoepsg nphaN’ xafrho a eezircb:rCtan es oogPefe tyamnglEidaseo nmiai n( Nmwtvi sm iientiegotsTla ee amytunbc a h lp iioP (sidneltacFulAd hdaasn)mr;iee, me Renn yiomlsnge a,scR set iimr s einOaionegtrm tThe ie fit) c PTdpoHTdeehReLrsdeeEci -AgbnrtEBBLSMNNNRRSMoianhbamiNSrrooaaaesinflcsuueooatruurrridpoagllag cdaalrrrttTnnst rlmooolii le dduuoe--l esddu wwww llssnm-hweaweeyys ttsIsglllha -diddeeyyyennecctCsuiphi ,,emmecaegnooccc hlemohbbapr pglnOoooamm uo trrioiiullnpmndenoonmcuueefNieigsl aagaemmceedddand ddla d loSannbeltplll yyfrraaatpa re rtrrc alehe,emk lee lm e,s e fp,ao hscllahhonrw uwtisbniS,nsg Hta, e spaRrye namUsBBCELORSUUUSdr,o rBbppeuuopppop wbeeo orrussrrrmeSuncveaiiioshhlnngggseostpwaoeyyd,,hhh.hntd ad, ,, letttt s Hyi-gciyr,,omsndntp eie toupgvavp,g,roer e ecieer,l,bbgblu acd nkinacapuokunnh e dlcuesrrssidtirmioonesyhnhni-nus mgogyfygbigotssuuirb r,nsal moa gtltesien.sg,
behavior, and reproductive habits. pupuaannllddeeee rrggpprraaaayyrrtt ss eeppyyaaeerr--rrrrooiittnn hhggaa——ss AAiissttrriissaamm ttffiiaaiinnllccaaggiirraaaa llttpp ooppaa aarrttttaahhcckkaahheett eerrooeettffssdd ..ttuuhhcceeee ddrree ttllaaoott eeaanndd ooff ggoollddeenn ccoolloorraattiioonn.. cycad or similar
1100 iinn
66 iinn 66½½––77 iinn 2255 ccmm
1155 ccmm 1177––1188 ccmm
ABBREVIATIONS
SPECIES CATALOG 14147744½½––44––6611 88cc mmiinn 12121199½½ ccmm iinn rreedd bbeellllyy
Pictorial galleries profile some 5,000
MMAARROOOONN--BBEELLLLIIEEDD sp.: species (used where species name is unknown)
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highlights unique and interesting comparing its weight to that of an equal volume of water
aspects of each organism.
UUSS__000088--000099__CCHH11__aabboouutt__tthhiiss__bbooookk..iinndddd 88 2255//0033//2211 22::3388 PPMM UUSS__000088--000099__CCHH11__aabboouutt__tthhiiss__bbooookk..iinndddd 99 1122//0044//2211 77::4488 PPMM
Living
Earth
UUSS__001100--001111__LLiivviinngg__EEaarrtthh__CCOO..iinndddd 1100 2255//0033//2211 22::3388 PPMM
