Table Of ContentParasitology Research Monographs 16
Heinz Mehlhorn
Jorg Heukelbach Editors
Infectious
Tropical Diseases
and One Health
in Latin America
Parasitology Research Monographs
Volume 16
SeriesEditor
HeinzMehlhorn,DepartmentofParasitology,HeinrichHeineUniversity,
Düsseldorf,Germany
This book series “Parasitology Research Monographs” presents carefully refereed
volumes on selected parasitological topics. Parasites have an increasing impact on
animalandhumanhealthinthepresenttimesofglobalizationandglobalwarming.
Parasites may be agents of diseases and- often at the same time- vectors of other
agents of disease such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa and/or worms. The
growth in knowledge of parasitic physiology, cell structure, biotechnological and
genetic approaches, ecology, therapeutic capabilities, vaccination, immunology,
diagnosis,transmissionpathwaysandmanyotheraspectsofparasitologyisincreas-
ingdramatically,eveninthefaceofthebreakthroughsthathavealreadybeenmade.
Reflectingthesemostrecentachievementsandtheimportanceofparasitesasathreat
tohumanandanimalhealth,theseries’broadscopeconcentratesonparticularlyhot
topicsemergingfromthescientificcommunity.Chaptersoffercompactbutintense
insights into the ongoing research and into the methods and technologies used to
control parasites. The volumes in the series build on these topics, and the volume
editors are well-known experts in their respective fields. Each volume offers 10 to
20comprehensivereviewscoveringallrelevantaspectsofthetopicinfocus.
(cid:129)
Heinz Mehlhorn Jorg Heukelbach
Editors
Infectious Tropical
Diseases and One Health
in Latin America
Editors
HeinzMehlhorn JorgHeukelbach
DepartmentofParasitology DepartamentodeSaúdeComunitária,Faculdade
HeinrichHeineUniversity deMedicina
Düsseldorf,Germany UniversidadeFederaldoCeará
Fortaleza,CE,Brazil
ISSN2192-3671 ISSN2192-368X (electronic)
ParasitologyResearchMonographs
ISBN978-3-030-99711-3 ISBN978-3-030-99712-0 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99712-0
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AG2022
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Contents
1 YellowFever. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
PedroFernandodaCostaVasconcelos
andJuarezAntonioSimõesQuaresma
2 Chikungunya. .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. 19
LucianoPamplonadeGóesCavalcanti,AndréMachadoSiqueira,
JoséAlfredodeSousaMoreira,andAndréRicardoRibasFreitas
3 ZikaVirosis:AKnown,ButLongTimeUnderestimatedDisease
ThatGotNewandHighAttentionBefore,During,andAfterthe
OlympicGamesinBrazil2016. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
HeinzMehlhorn
4 ImportantInfectiousDiseasesinLatinAmericaandthe
Caribbean:Plague.. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . 45
MatheusFilgueiraBezerraandAlziraMariaPaivadeAlmeida
5 TrypanosomaCruzi:AnAncientandSuccessfulEnzootic
Parasite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
AnaMariaJansen,RaphaelTestaideSouza,
AndreLuizRodriguesRoque,andSamantaCristinadasChagas
Xavier
6 TheSocialandEnvironmentalDeterminantsofthe
LeishmaniasesintheAmericas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
OscarDanielSalomónandGuilhermeLoureiroWerneck
7 ToxoplasmosisinSouthAmerica. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
HeinzMehlhorn
8 TungaSpp.andTungiasisinLatinAmerica. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
JorgHeukelbach,TatianiVitorHarvey,
andCláudiaMariaLinsCalheiros
9 HumanMyiasisontheSouthAmericanContinent. . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
HeinzMehlhorn
vv
vi Contents
10 SchistosomiasisControl:PresentSituationandPerspectives. . . . . . 191
CarlosGraeff-TeixeiraandOtávioSarmentoPieri
11 HookwormsinSouthAmerica:AConstantThreatEspecially
toChildren. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
HeinzMehlhorn
12 OneHealthApproachtoControlHumanandZoonotic
HookwormInfections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
JorgHeukelbach
1
Yellow Fever
Pedro Fernando da Costa Vasconcelos
and Juarez Antonio Simões Quaresma
Abstract
Yellow fever is an infectious disease caused by yellow fever virus (YFV),
FlavivirusgenusoftheFlaviviridaefamily,whichisendemicinSouthAmerica
and Africa, and periodically has caused limited outbreaks or large epidemics in
theendemicregions.
Keywords
Flaviviridae·Hemorrhagicfever·Cytokines·Kupffercells·Flavivirus
1.1 Introduction
Yellowfeverisaninfectiousdiseasecausedbyyellowfevervirus(YFV),Flavivirus
genusoftheFlaviviridaefamily,whichisendemicinSouthAmericaandAfrica,and
periodicallyhascausedlimitedoutbreaksorlargeepidemicsintheendemicregions.
P.F.d.C.Vasconcelos(*)
DepartmentofPathology,ParáStateUniversity,Belém,Pará,Brazil
DepartmentofArbovirologyandHemorrhagicFevers,EvandroChagasInstitute,Ananindeua,
Pará,Brazil
e-mail:[email protected];[email protected]
J.A.S.Quaresma
DepartmentofPathology,ParáStateUniversity,Belém,Pará,Brazil
DepartmentofArbovirologyandHemorrhagicFevers,EvandroChagasInstitute,Ananindeua,
Pará,Brazil
TropicalMedicineNucleus,FederalUniversityofPará,Belém,Pará,Brazil
e-mail:[email protected]
#TheAuthor(s),underexclusivelicensetoSpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG2022 1
H.Mehlhorn,J.Heukelbach(eds.),InfectiousTropicalDiseasesandOneHealth
inLatinAmerica,ParasitologyResearchMonographs16,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99712-0_1
2 P.F.d.C.VasconcelosandJ.A.S.Quaresma
YFV is one of the most prominent and ancient flaviviruses that infects humans
andwasoriginallyisolatedinGhanain1927(Asibistrain)(Stokesetal.1928).The
virus causes yellow fever, the original viral hemorrhagic fever that mainly affects
tropicalareasofAfrica,andduetotheslavetradeinthe17–1800s,thevirusandits
urban vectorAedesaegyptimosquitowereintroduced totheAmericas,wherethey
alsobecameendemic/enzootic(Monath2001).
TheYFVgenomeiscomposedofasingle-strandedRNA,plussense,withnear
11Kb;theentiregenomeencodesapolyproteincontainingtengenes,givingriseto
three structural proteins, capsid (C), glycoprotein precursor of M protein (PrM)/
membrane (M) protein, and envelope (E), and seven non-structural proteins (NS),
named NS1, NS2A, NS2B, NS3, NS4A, NS4B, and NS5 (Rice et al. 1985). The
genetic polymorphisms of YFV generated seven different genotypes, two in South
America and five in Africa. The genetic differences have not been associated with
differences inclinical presentation nor diseaseseverity,butreflecttheevolutionof
theYFV along the time andalso due totheinfidelityof theRNA-dependentRNA
polymeraseduringreplicationofthevirusinthehosts(Wangetal.1996;Mutebiand
Barrett2002;Vasconcelosetal.2004).
The disease caused by YFV infection,yellow fever, istheoriginal hemorrhagic
feverdescribedallovertheworldandwasforalmostthreecenturiesadisease that
causedfearandclosureoftheeconomyandtradeincountriesreportingepidemics.
Indeed,yellowfeverwasanimportantplayerinrecentcenturiesandrecognizedasa
major human public health disease. Even today, yellow fever is an important but
preventablediseasekillinghundredsofnon-immunizedpeopleinAfricaandSouth
Americaaffecting47countries(11inSouthAmericaand36inAfrica).TheWorld
Health Organization (WHO) estimates an annual occurrence of more than 30,000
infectionsandapproximately3000deaths(MonathandVasconcelos2015).
1.2 The Virus
YFVwasinitiallyisolatedbyStokesetal.(1928),fromthebloodofafebrilehuman.
TheYFVprototype,Asibistrain,wasobtainedinWestAfricafromaGhanaianwith
anillnesscharacterizedbyfever,headache,andmusclepains.TheAsibistrainwas
maintained in rhesus monkeys for serial passages for many years before its initial
passagesinadultandlaterinsucklingmicebyTheiler(1930).
YFV, like other flaviviruses, has small spherical particles with approximately
50nmofdiameter,containingacorewithnearly30nm.Thiscoreiscoveredbyan
envelopeformedbylipids andglycoproteins. The envelope(E)glycoprotein isthe
principal virus antigenic determinant and responsible for the induction of immune
response.Thisproteinisalsoresponsibleforthefusionofthevirusparticlewiththe
hostcellsenhancingthefusionandentryofthevirusparticleintothehostcell.Two
other glycoproteins are also present in the surfaces of the virus particles: the
membrane (M) or pre-membrane (prM) depending on the pH of extracellular or
intracellularandcapsid(C)protein.Theyareimportantcomponentsofthestructure
of the YFV (Rice et al. 1985). These coding proteins are involved in the virus
1 YellowFever 3
pathogenesis and are associated with virus diversity including the emergence of
different genotypes of YFV. Seven non-structural proteins have been described;
although these proteins were not components of the virus archabbot, they play an
important role in the gene expression and virus pathogenicity. Indeed, these
non-structural (NS) proteins NS1, NS2A, NS2B, NS3, NS4A, NS4B, and NS5 are
completely associated with YFV replication and pathogenesis (Rice et al. 1985;
Chambers et al. 1990). NS5 is the major NS protein and is a replicase and
RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, while NS3 is an integrase and replicase; NS1
isthefirstproteintobeexpressedduringacuteinfectionandhasthecapacitytofix
complement. The minor NS proteins, NS2A, NS2B, NS4A, and NS4B, have
multiple accessory functions that support major NS proteins (Rice et al. 1985;
Chambersetal.1990).
1.3 Epidemiology
1.3.1 Origin of YFV
Presentlyyellowfeverisaglobalpublichealthconcernandendemicinsub-Saharan
AfricaandSouthAmericawhereannuallysporadiccases,smalloutbreaks,ormajor
epidemics are registered. According to the WHO, each year at least 100,000 cases
and30,000deathsduetoyellowfeveroccurallovertheworld,butveryfewcases
areofficiallyreportedwhichischaracterizedbyenormousunderreportingofcases.
Actually, 45 countries are considered endemic to YFV, 11 in South America and
34 in the sub-Saharan Africa (Jentes et al. 2011; Monath and Vasconcelos 2015;
VasconcelosandMonath2016).
FordecadestheoriginoftheYFVwaspolemicsincetheinitialreportsofyellow
feverwereregisteredintheAmericas;however,thecloserelationshipofYFVwith
other African flaviviruses (among other Banzi, Sepik, Uganda S, and Wesselsbron
viruses)wasindicativeofanAfricanorigin.Anotherimportantaspectofitsoriginis
thehigherdiversityofYFVinAfricacomparedtotheAmericas. Indeed,inAfrica
fivegenotypes(WestAfricanI,WestAfricanII,EastAfrican,CentralAfrican,and
Angola)arerecognized(MutebiandBarrett2002),whileinSouthAmericaonlytwo
genotypes (South American I and South American II) are registered (Wang et al.
1996;Vasconcelosetal.2004).Thequestionwasdefinitelyclarifiedbyanelegant
molecularstudy(Bryantetal.2007)whichshowedspecialsignaturesshowingthat
YFVisdefinitelyanAfricanvirus.
1.3.2 Cycles
YFV is maintained in jungle cycles in both regions, but the Culicidae vectors are
different.InAfricaseveralAedesspeciesareresponsiblefortransmissionintheOld
World forests. Aedes africanus is the most important sylvatic vector in Africa, but
other Aedes mosquitoes play a secondary role and have been associated with the
